Maya Angelou Essay – not completed.

The poem I choose to write about Is â€Å"Still I Rise† by Maya Angelo. The reason why I choose this poem over the others is because it really puts on display her courage, and strength even throughout her very grim life. Maya instills the mood of the poem by using many literary devices. The mood of the poem is empowerment, and strength even through anything you may possible be going through.A simile she used in the poem was in the third stanza, where she says † Just like moons and like suns, With certainty of tides. Just like hopes springing high, Still I'll rise. † What I interpreted her saying was, no matter how low she may be, or even be at rock bottom she still will come back to the top. I liked how she used the moon and the sun as an example, Just for the sole reason everyone knows how the suns rises and sets everyday. I personally like this stanza the best Just because of her optimism.It really shows how she has courage In herself. I'm sure everyone can conne ct to this Tanta. Maya uses repetition with the word â€Å"Rise† to show that she has gotten over and risen above racism. In the stanza where she says, â€Å"you may trod me in the very dirt but still, like dust ill rise† it stresses to the reader one of the main points in the poem, that no matter how unfair people will treat her because of her skin, she will let them bring her down and will stand up against them. The main point in that line is the rising dust.For dust to rise, it must be messed with from the ground for it to leave ND rise, which represents Mama's overcoming of racism. Her enemies, on the floor and because they have â€Å"unsettled† her by treating her wrong, she choose to stay strong which Is her rising above them all, going against racism. The way she uses repetition Is also used Maya, repeats the words â€Å"l rise† more than 4 times In the last part. This stresses the theme of the poem, letting us know what she was trying to say in th e beginning, when she was comparing herself to rising dust from the ground.

Computerization of Public Sector Essay

Introduction In the midst of the Global Financial Crisis we found the Mediterranean states, Greece, Portugal, Spain, Italy, being troubled by serious fiscal issues, great deficit on their balance sheets, characterized by low competitiveness and enormous public debt. Over the last year of the GFC the policies that had been followed for those countries are mainly focused around the creation of fiscal surpass by using horizontal and cross cutting methods. The results of those tactics after almost 4 years of austerity measures are far from favorable. One reason for that is that the IMF and EU were unable to look deep into the problem. Their primary target was to found a swift and superficial solution, mainly because of the pressure from the markets and political factors. On this research we will focus our interest deeper into the problem and attempt reaching the core of it. One very important aspect of the crisis that the mentioned organizations have not taken into account is the efficiency of the pu blic sector on the problematic countries. If the public sector lacks on efficiency then the results would be phenomenon like corruption, unorganized departments, tax evasion and absence of communication between agencies. One great factor that determines the efficiency of a state is the computerization of its public sector. And that is what our research will be focused on. Main literature used on the research To reach the needed results we have to find the proper literature, we have to use that as a base for our research and to help us on extracting our conclusions. We need to analyze the structure of the Public Sector Management on those countries and to learn how important the role of computerization is on an efficient government. That is exactly what (Dunleavy, 2006) tried to show us. How vital computerization is for the public administrator and its role on key factors like taxation, decentralization, bureaucracy and public corruption. Another aspect we have to use on our literature research is the quality on public sector. What is its relation with a computerized state how is affected by that. Quality is an important element of a successful computerization process, their bonds are strong, quality is considered fundamental for a public sector to become more efficient and to increase its performance (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 1995). Performance is another important factor that has a crucial role on a healthy public sector. It helps to increase its effectiveness, that leads to a more transparent and innovative system (Bruijn, 2006). After we successfully incorporate those components into the public administration we would be able to observe the impact of computerization on the economic stability of a country (Snellen et al., 1989). Advantages of a computerized public sector If we look into the literature we will see that the Mediterranean states that are deadlocked, actually apart from their deficit they have one more common thing, their corruption ratings (Transparency international, 2011; OECD, 2011). Therefore we observe a great proportion of tax evasion, and restrict bureaucracy (World Bank, 2012) and low competitiveness against other states (Klaus Schwab, 2012). The advantage of a computerized public sector, apart from the efficiency (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 1995), is the addition on effectiveness too (Willcocks and Harrow, 1992). Moreover we survey a great improvement on transparency (OECD, 2011) and on accessibility of the services as well as on productivity (Hayes, 1977). All the previews factors are on a sequence, first of all the immediate reaction of a computerized sector is to improve its quality (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 1995), that is conceivable through an â€Å"adaption† of new public management standards (Hood, 1998), next step is the improvement of performance (Margetts, 1999);(Dunleavy, 2006). Moreover after we succeed on adapting quality and performance into the public sector, the effectiveness (GAO,1991) and the efficiency occurs (Willcocks and Harrow, 1992). As a result an economic stability will commence (HMSO, 1983);(Klein, 1988). All the above have shown that will result on a better tax administrator (Snellen et al., 1989);(Naur, 1974) and have as an outcome the better taxation (Margetts, 1999). Still the most important thing that gets neutralized is the political interception (Herring, 1967). Arguments The main arguments about computerization of the public sector directs from the employees. A factor is the poverty of knowledge about the use of new technologies and their lack of interest on learning them. Another important factor is the political and union interests (Transparency international, 2011). On the above mentioned countries, unions and political parties have a â€Å"client† relationship. This suggests a major concern for an improvement effort of public sector’s administration. Managers lack the will to adapt innovative ideas into their departments. And the corrupted bureaucratic state’s roots are so deep that ought great effort to overcome those obstacles. (Jorma, 1988). Other arguments come from the cost of a computerization update (Dunleavy, 2006). Furthermore, arguments about the part that computerization had on the instability of the Mediterranean States are expressed from organizations like IMF, on their monthly reports they do not take into account the individuality and the complexity of the public sector on those countries (IMF, 2012). Methodology For the research to be conducted we have to use a combination of quantitative, by using the â€Å"N† data sets and qualitative methods by the use of enquiries. Because of the nature of the research some factors cannot be properly valued by quantitative methods (Weber et al., 1946) And some information are results from qualitative research (Ragin and Amoroso, 2011);(Ragin, 1987). Also we have to take into account the external factors that affect the computerization process. Thus the research will not be â€Å"immune† to external elements. Conclusion To conclude we have reached a point on introducing austerity measures on the Mediterranean Countries, where we should be very careful of our actions. Especially when the EU is on a dense position because of political rivalries, unwillingness and antagonism amongst union states. And portray a lack of focus to the core of the issue. If we do not act more carefully and if we do not try to find the right questions for the problem the situation will become irreversible. The question should not be how to stop the deficit, instead should be how those problematic countries can improve their public sector? And more specifically at what extend the computerization of public sector in Mediterranean Nations â€Å"affect† their economic stability? It should be appropriate to close with a quote from Simon H. A â€Å"is the resistance it evokes from those who refuse to see in it anything more than an enlarged desk calculator. Not since the Darwinian controversy of the past century we have seen such a passionate defense of the uniqueness of man [sic] against claims of kinship by systems that don’t belong to his species.† (Simon H.A, 1973: 503) References BRUIJN, J. A. D. 2006. Managing performance in the public sector, New York, NY, Routledge. DUNLEAVY, P. 2006. Digital era governance : IT corporations, the state, and E-government, Oxford, Oxford University Press. GAO. 1991a. SSA: Computers Long Rans Vision Needed to Guide future systems modernization efforts, GAO/IMTEC – P1- 44, Washington DC. HAYES, F. O. R. 1977. Productivity in local government, Lexington, Mass., Lexington Books. HERRING, P. 1967. Public administration and the public interest, New York,, Russell & Russell. HMSO. 1983a. Efficiency and Effectiveness in the Civil Service, HMSO, London HOOD, C. 1998. The art of the state : culture, rhetoric, and public management, Oxford ; New York, Clarendon Press. IMF. DECEMBER 2011. IMF Country Report No. 11/351, Greece: Fifth Review Under the Stand-By Arrangement, Rephasing and Request for Waivers of Nonobservance of Performance Criteria; Press Release on the Executive Board Discussion; and Statement by the Executive Director for Greece., Washington, D.C. IMF. JULY 2012. IMF Country Report No. 12/168, Italy: Selected Issues, Washington, D.C. IMF. JUNE 2012. IMF Country Report No. 12/137, Spain: Financial Stability Assessment, Washington, D.C. KLAUS SCHWAB. 2012. WEF: Global Competitiveness 2012-2013, Geneva, World Economic Forum. KLEIN, R & CARTER, N. 1988. Performance Measurement a review of concepts and issues. Discussion Paper No 18, Public Finance Foundation KUOPUS, JORMA. 1988. Hallinnon lainalaisuus ja automatisoitu verohalliuto, Jyuaskyla, Finnish Lawyers Publishing Company MARGETTS, H. 1999. Information technology in government : Britain and America, London ; New York, Routledge. NAUR, P. 1974. Concise survey of computer methods, New York, Petrocelli Books. OECD. 2011. OECD: Working on Bribery, Annual Report 2011 POLLITT, C. & BOUCKAERT, G. 1995. Quality improvement in European public services : concepts, cases and commentary, London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif., Sage. RAGIN, C. C. & AMOROSO, L. M. 2011. Constructing social research : the unity and diversity of method, Los Angeles, SAGE Publications. RAGIN, C. C. 1987. The comparative method : moving beyond qualitative and quantitative strategies, Berkeley, University of California Press. SIMON H,A . 1973. Applying Information technology to organization Design, Public Administration Review, 33: 268-78 SNELLEN, I. T. M., DONK, W. B. H. J. V. D. & BAQUIAST, J.-P. 1989. Expert systems in public administration : evolving practices and norms, Amsterdam ; New York, Elsevier Science Publishers. TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL. 2011. Corruption Perception Index 2011 WEBER, M., GERTH, H. H. & MILLS, C. W. 1946. From Max Weber: Essays in sociology, New York,, Oxford university press. WILLCOCKS, L. & HARROW, J. 1992. Rediscovering public services management, Lond on, McGraw-Hill. WORLD BANK. 2008. WORLD BANK: Doing Business 2012, http://www.doingbusiness.org/rankings, last checked 29/10/2012

Are immigrants needed to provide low-wage workers in the U.S. to Essay

Are immigrants needed to provide low-wage workers in the U.S. to compete with workers in other regions of the world Do immigran - Essay Example This is not to say that these immigrants provide better quality jobs than the natives of the country as the reverse is usually the case. It could then be concluded in this regard that, the low-wage working immigrants in the US are not needed to compete with workers in other regions of the world but to meet up with the high demand of work in the country at a lower rate (Holzer, 2011). Immigrants take on low-paying work that people in the US do not want to do and the reasons for these are not far-fetched. Due to the need to make ends meet and the desire of the immigrants to get to do something during their sojourn in the US; they take any offer that comes their way (Holzer, 2011). This means that the immigrants are ready to take any offer that comes their way. Thus, the immigrants are satisfied taking the low-paying work as long as it would guarantee their survival in the country and make them more comfortable than the way they were in their native countries. It could then be said that the immigrants are ready and willing to take up low-paying jobs that the people in the US would never be willing to do.

Forensic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Forensic - Essay Example Secondly, the entire scene has to be documented with the specific location of where the evidence was found indicated. Thirdly, the digital evidence is collected, labelled and preserved. After that, the already secured evidence is packed and transported in a secure manner. Lastly, it is presented in court without any alterations. It is important to follow all the steps in order maximise on the viability of the evidence. Poor handling of the evidence, is likely to render it in usable due to tampering (CDESF Working Group, 2006). Once at the scene, I had to ensure that I record what is visible on the screen as I wait the full legal authority team to seize the evidence to continue with further examination of the computer. After seizing the computer, I will label, pack and transport it to a secure place so that it can be used to provide evidence. Encryption was used in the past to prevent people from viewing incriminating files (Taylor, Haggerty, Gresty, & Hegarty, 2010). A message is encoded using a particular key, hence making it impossible for anybody to decrypt it. Lastly, media database systems can be unified into one. Encryption and stenography can be used legitimately by forensic examiners to ensure that there is minimal tampering with the collected evidence. Stenography was used in the past to ensure confidential communication. Secondly, it can be used to protect data since it is

Management Organisational Design and change Essay

Management Organisational Design and change - Essay Example A summary of the main points discussed will be given in the conclusion at the end of the paper. 1. Basically, strategic planning can be defined as the process of attempting to strike a balance between the organisation’s objectives and resources and its changing opportunities (Mintzberg, 2000). It tries to set the direction for the use of all resources and this direction will remain valid for a period of time. As such, analysing scenarios and using them as a strategic planning tool is beneficial for planners to rank them and attempt to identify commonness in possible futures and potential pathways. Thus, scenario review involves engaging in a systematic conjecture concerning potential futures and is mainly based on scanning the environment in which the organisation operates, interpreting signals and making predictions about what might happen next. This allows the organisation to be better positioned to formulate ideal strategies that can be implemented to meet the changing dema nds of the environment in which the organisation operates. It is important for the planners to rank these scenarios given that they often differ in their order of importance. Some scenarios would require immediate actions while others would require long term plans. It is also important for the planners to identify the commonness of these scenarios in possible futures and potential pathways so as to enable them to ensure that they do not waste resources on scenarios which would otherwise require the same strategy to be solved. The planners have to first identify the scenario then followed by choosing the appropriate pathway that can be taken to fulfil the strategy. Pertinent scenarios to the organisation are often given priority and it is the duty of the planner to anticipate the intended destination of the strategy to be implemented. 2. Strategic drift is a scenario that is witnessed when a strategy manager has failed to monitor and keep pace with its changing external environment. There are certain issues for managers when they prevent strategic drift and some of them involve the following: establishing the capacity of the organisation to make the strategy happen, availability of resources as well as fear for worsening the situation. The environment in which organisations operate is dynamic and at times, unprecedented scenarios which are unfavorable to the organisation may emerge the reason why managers ought to prevent such issues from happening (Kleynhans et al 2007). In most cases, the managers prevent strategic drift by weighing their capability of making the strategy happen. Indeed, there may be changes in the external environment and it is the role of the strategy managers to ensure that the organisation has the capability to meet these changes. In order to prevent strategic drift, the managers ought to deploy strategic decisions that will ensure that the organisation may remain viable in the face of changing environment so as to be able to be better po sitioned to keep pace with the changes. The availability of resources and time may be the other issues for the managers when preventing strategic drift. It is the duty of the manager to ensure that they channel adequate resources that enable them to monitor the environment to avoid

Written response Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Written response - Research Paper Example The reading is also motivated by the need to explore the influence the memories associated with a given locations, the physical characteristics and the geology on the overall architectural design process. One of the interesting aspects of this reading which comes out to be very engaging is way it explores the relationship between the buildings and the various environmental parameters which in the site where it is located. The reading explores how the orientation of the building, movement of the sun and movement from one building to the other affects design (Farrelly, 2007). It not only impacts on the height and the materials that can be used to construct the building. Generally, the reading is quite informative as it engages the reader to appreciate the key role which the location or site of a building has on the overall project starting from the design to the issue of the building upon

Wonhyo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Wonhyo - Essay Example He did much of his work in reforming and taking Buddhism to people who did not know about it. He lived a religious life. His major focus was based on harmonizing spiritual principles with the real daily life in order to attain targeted goal. In interpreting the meaning of Buddhism he used dance, music and literature. The three were the things which were cherished by a majority of the Koreans, hence decided to incorporate them in his mode of spreading Buddhism to the Korean people. He believed that if he used the things people interacted with most in their daily activities he could be able to reach them easily. Indeed he successfully achieved his goal of spreading Buddhism in Korea. This shows that his approach was excellent. He influenced many people hence the religion of Buddhism extensively spread in Korea. His impact in Korean Buddhism religion is remembered up to date. 1 1 De Bary, William Theodore. 2008. Sources of East Asian tradition. New York: Columbia University Press. His l ife spanned through three empire reigns. At the start of the united Silla, he played a very significant responsibility in the welcoming and acclimatization of the wider extent of traditional practices which entered the Korean Penisula at that time. He was the first person to arrange and schematize Buddhism of Korea introducing the many doctrines and harmonized them to suit both common people and philosophy scholars. The idea which was significant to his work of harmonizing Buddhism practices was the theory of insight which revolves around the world but not beyond it. He enlightened Korean people on the Buddhism religion. He is a legendary among the ten Sages of the old Kingdom of Korea. His legendary was due to his work that he did especially in transforming Buddhism in Korea. He cherished the religion of Buddhism to an extent that he could endure unfavorable conditions to spread the it and convince both scholars and lay persons to be united in Buddhism norms and traditions. The phi losophy of Wonhyo is positive because of the effect of Taoism. He had inherited his Budhism teachings from Madiyamika. Different from Nagarjuna, who refused the development of all traditions, Wonhyo assimilated them into a single structure. The ultimate goal of the two was the same irrespective of having different concerns in harmonization. The perspective of hermeneutic of wonhyo is developed on a thorough wide-ranging understanding which incorporated the norms of Taoism and Buddhism of Indians. Wonhyo collaborated with other Chinese counterparts and introduced the religion of Buddhism to the court of the Kingdom of Kuguryo. At this time, Siila, Baekje and Silla were the only kingdoms in Korea. Wonhyo formed a group of people who were responsible in spreading Buddhism to other two kingdoms; Silla and Baekje. The propagation was very efficient in that he and his group had learnt how to convince and attract people to adopt the religion of Buddhism. He thought them the traditions, nor ms and practices of Buddhism. He thought them the importance of obeying the norms and traditions and the consequences they would face if they violated them. He merged the gap which existed between the learned men such the philosophers, writers and commentators and the common layman people. The philosophers were responsible in studying the religion and advocating for traditions and norms which to them seemed to be correct and right and could benefit the community of Buddhism. Initially, the relationship which existed between the Buddhism philosophers and layman people was cold. This could be a great impediment in the adoption of religion and implementation of its norms. Wonhyo thought that clearing the bad relations between the two parties could enhance the

A review and literary assessment of the short story Everyday Use by Research Paper

A review and literary assessment of the short story Everyday Use by Alice Walker - Research Paper Example They ended up shining a light for generations of readers. The work that this paper aims to review is one of those papers that were done by one of today’s greatest writers and tells a very intriguing and provocative story in a sublet way. IT presents certain details when needed but also leaves out things in order to provoke the mind to stir and create a mental picture of the scene that the story projects. It gives snippets of information that is just enough to let the readers imagination wonder. The story’s characters are also presented in such a way that the details of their personality and persona are revealed through their conversations and back stories without losing focus of the actual story’s timeline. The story in its self is also very engaging and the reader is glued to the next word of the next phrase of the next word while looking to have it unfold before the reader’s very eyes. The reader is left to anticipate and watch as the story unfolds. For this story in particular, the issues that are played out are done in a very classy manner and that the characters in themselves are able to tell a story for and of themselves while still able to have participation to the story as a whole. This paper aims to review and analyze Alice Walker’s story. Essentially, the main time line of the story occurs in less than a day, however it does go into several flashbacks. The story is told by a mother who initially describes her life, her former relationship with one daughter and her current relationship with another daughter. You don’t get a sense of who is speaking, or what the story is about until you are a paragraph or two into the story. This maybe considered a technique to keep the reader interested in toe story as a whole. Through the initial part of the story, you get a glimpse of what life was like at the time the story was set. You also get a look at how the mother’s children view her as well as a visualization o f how they transitioned to the current life they live through the mention of a fire in their former home. The initial part of the story also sets the pace and the mood for the rest of the story since the mood was a bit toned down but slowly exposes details as the story goes on. There was not really any big revelations regarding detail in the story until the later parts when her daughter cam to visit and exposed that she changed her name. The story depicts a much simpler time and place where the main character decides on many occasions not to trouble herself with too many details and not to fuss over trivial things. It also shows a kind of family bond that may be different from what most people know, but it is strong. Most of the story telling and narrating is one sided but the main character does provide us insight on the other characters of the story like her daughters, what they say to her, what they may think of her, as well as their descriptions and reactions to certain things. If reading in the sense of looking at the activities described in the story, it may seem like a rather mundane or shallow tale but if you dive deep into what the story is telling you, or what it is describing, or when it is set or even who the characters are, then you will be surprised to find a gold mine of information and rich depth. Although the story does not explicitly say this, the story is also about issues regarding African-Americans at the time they were trying to identify themselves. Although there were no directly mentioned

Internationization Of Economies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Internationization Of Economies - Essay Example Explain what a Monetary Union is and indicate possible benefits of the regime. Globalisation is a broad term used to denote the merger of the world’s various economic systems. The primary agents of change are reductions in barriers to trade such as import quotas, export fees and tariffs. The base contention related to justify globalisation is that it aids in increasing material wealth as well as goods and services through an efficient process of international division of labour. Globalisation is also used to describe how regional economies, cultures and societies are becoming increasingly integrated through trade, transportation and communication. Economic globalisation can be specified better if seen as the integration of national and regional economies into the global economy. The salient features of this integration are FDI (foreign direct investment), migration, trade, capital flows, technology and military presence. (Bhagwati, 2004) Globalisation like most other internati onal phenomenon has had positive and negative consequences. This text will attempt to analyse the positive and negative aspects of globalisation in terms of economics by utilising relevant economic theories. This will be followed by a discussion on floating and fixed exchange rates and the text will end with an appraisal of the monetary union concept. Economic Globalisation Economic globalisation is dependent on achieving a common global market that is based entirely on the freedom to exchange all nature of services and goods. (Lorenz & Wagner, 2007) Another major consequence of globalisation is that employees have to compete in an international job market. Previously wage regulations were more in sync with national economies while the advent of globalisation has changed this altogether. As economies are more and more intertwined, the failure of an individual economy does not necessarily jeopardise worker’s wages. This has affected the distribution of wages and income on a la rge scale. (Reich, 1992) The new global market is highly competitive and productivity must be upgraded in order to face the competition. The removal of trade barriers and tariffs ensures that competition is head on and multi faceted simultaneously. Quality and cost need to be monitored at the same time and there are large chances that industry may fail if faced with too stiff competition. Industries must upgrade their technology as well as the product range in order to compete. (Croucher, 2004) However, the failure of individual economies does present the chance for a domino effect. One failing economy may spur failure elsewhere and the entire global market may collapse. The recent economic recession is a glaring example of such a phenomenon. Some schools of thought contend that globalisation does present obvious problems through rapid development but globalisation is a positive force which has the power to lift a nation out of poverty. Rapid development spurs a virtual economic cyc le which produces faster economic advancement. (Bhagwati, 2004) Globalisation presents blue collar workers in developing nations with far greater occupational choices than before. Educated workers from developing nations are given chances to compete internationally for better paying jobs. Workers from developing nations are able to compete with workers from industrialised nations at an advantage. This aids in creating greater opportunities for workers. Workers are provided with opportunities to emigrate and getting jobs in industrialised countries or to stay in their native countries to work in outsourced industrial ventures. The global economy also provides abundant opportunities for products of cottage industries too. (Bhagwati, 2004) On the other hand, globalisation has

Redo of paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Publix Case Essay Example for Free

Publix Case Essay This list of items changes from region to region and even from store to store. The items on the theft-prone list are locked up for safe keeping. It is essential that Publix continue to take the necessary actions to prevent the likelihood of theft. While a company cannot prevent all attempts of theft, it can certainly do its due diligence to ensure that the number of cases of theft is minimized. Additionally, Publix employees play a major role in reducing the amount of legal costs the company incurs. All employees are expected to work to ensure store safety on a consistent basis. By being proactive with these types of training programs and locking away commonly stolen merchandise, Publix is lessening the amount of time and money it spends on legal issues. Economic Factors With the recent downturn in the economy, many customers are now looking for the lowest price retailer to purchase from. Publix has built its brand based mostly on the quality of products and the shopping experience, not the lowest price. Retailers that consumers generally equate to low prices include Wal-Mart and bulk buying retailers like Costco and Sams Club. With that in mind, in times like these, Publix seems to be at a major disadvantage. Publix understands that there is strong competition in the supermarket industry(Weinstein, pg 272). Publix, like many other grocery chains, is having a difficult time competing with low cost supercenters. Even in a recession, the average American consumer is still spending a large portion of their income on food. Although U. S. food spending is on the rise, supermarkets are not capturing their fair share (Weinstein, pg 274). Consequently, Publix has to now change the consumer focus on price to one of value. Publixs goal is to make every customer feel personally valued in such a way that they see themselves as one in a million(Weinstein, pg 269). If Publix is able to continue to differentiate its products value for the consumer, it may be able to convert the supercenter shopper into a loyal customer. Social/ Cultural Factors At Publix, everything revolves around pleasing the customer, which is why it has enjoyed much of the success it has had since the 1930s(Weinstein, pg 269). Superior customer value and quality of products are cornerstones in the Publix culture. Publix depends on the fact that a more educated consumer is willing to pay a slightly higher price for great service. The average Publix customer is well-educated and lives within a 5 mile radius of the store in which they shop. Publix understands that it is far easier to maintain a current customer than to attract a new one. Thus, Publix associates are [also] encouraged to use their daily observations, customer feedback, survey evaluation, and other data to improve their jobs, better serve their customers, and make Publix a better place where shopping is a pleasure'(Weinstein, pg 280). Technological Factors An industry study revealed that by 2007, about 20 million households in the United States will purchase groceries, food, and other household items online†¦However, to date, none of the major grocery chains have mastered the online arena(Weinstein, pg 281). Publix is working towards how to profitably master implementing the technological processes that its customer is demanding. In an attempt to enter the online grocery market, Publix launched PublixDirect in 2001. This service came to an end in 2003 despite all the proper planning that went into its conception. It is imperative that Publix finds a way to control its costs in an effort to compete with the few successful online grocers that currently dominate the market.

Factors For The Rise Of English Neologisms English Language Essay

Factors For The Rise Of English Neologisms English Language Essay Languages are changing as the world is constantly changing. After the Second World War, English neologisms emerged in a remarkable way. New vocabulary came into existence due to new technologies and new discoveries such as ; computing, internet , cell phones and the like. Peoples daily activities like dancing, looking and many others, renewed their popularity giving birth to new lexicon. In deed, new words are invented rapidly and are developed quickly thanks to mass communication. They appear and fall into disuse when they have served their momentary purpose ( Bernhart 54).Only a few of them will get recorded in glossaries of neologisms of general dictionaries. The matter of neologism becomes a new hot spot of research owing to its practical and prevailing use in reality. The study of neologisms evoked a whole cluster of questions: -What are the reasons beyond the rise of new lexicon? -Why are some new words just a flash in a pan? -Why are other words successful? -What are the qualities that make a word successful? -Are Neologisms markers of changes in societies? Part 01: Literature Review 1.Definition of a Neologism The term neologism originates from Greek: neos means new, logos means word, i. e. a neologism is literally a new word. Neologism is the creation of a new lexical item as a response to changed circumstances in the external world, which achieves some currency within a speech community(qtd. in Chrystal 1992: 264) at a particular time. In linguistics, a neologism is a newly invented word or phrase. It can be an old word or phrase used with a new meaning. The word neologism is a neologism itself, it was coined in 1800. l. 2. Background of English Neologisms The collection of dictionaries that contain neologisms started in 1604.The early Neologisms dictionarieswere: Table Alphabeticall (1604, Robert Cawdrey), English Expositor (1616, John Bullokar), and The English Dictionarie (1623, Henry Cockeram).Those dictionaries had some features of neologisms dictionaries but the true study of neologisms began in the 20 century, some 200 years later. The first neologisms book is Word-Coinage, being an Inquiry Into Recent Neologisms, also a Brief Study of Literary Style, Slang, and Provincialisms by Leon Mead in 1902.It was not a real dictionaries, it contained a set of articles about new words. In 1920, there was a remarkable progress in the research of new words with the book of C.Alphonso Smith entitled New Words Self-defined.it included 420 new words with examples.He wrote some articles entitled Words and Meanings, New. . From 1937 to 1940, Dwight Bolinger ( Famous American Scholar) invented a column ,The Living Language, in the newspaper, Words.Later, it was changed into Among the New Words.In 1944, Professor I. Willis Russell became the editor of this column . World War II was a major reason of the birth of new words .In 1944, Majorie Taylor collected the new words created during the War in a word-list entitled The Language of World War II: Abbreviation, captions, Quotations, Slogans, Titles and Other Terms and Phrases.At the same time, Clarence Barnhart printed his Dictionary of U.S. Army Terms. After the World War II, science and technology development had greatly effected the society. A lot of scientific and technical words were brought into language. A lot of neologism dictionaries about words in those fields were published. Two of them are mostly welcomed: An Explaining and Pronouncing Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Words by W. E. Flood Michael West and Words of Sciences and the History Blind Them by Isaac Asimov. From 1970s on, the study of English neologism drew great attention from western scholars, many of them established special column to introduce new words in English, such as William Safire who was well known for his On Language in New York Times weekly and Anne H. Soukhanow who was the chief-editor of Word Watch. In Safires column, he provided a considerably clear explanation of new words by citing typical examples, exploring their origins and performing their current usage. The digital revolution in 1990s is the radical reshaping and restructuring of social patterns. Because of the wild spread of internet, America is speaking a whole new language, said Shawn Holley in his The New Word Revolution. Lots of neologisms that have a historical significance by reason of the influence they exerted on the language field are brought into existence. According to the statistics, more than 20 neologism dictionaries have been compiled, among which some put emphasis on the academic field and some are distinctive by their popularity. Oxford English Dictionary, Websters Third New International Dictionary and Barhart Dictionary of New English are the ones with the highest academic value. New words are numerous. Sometimes it seems as if a new word has about as much chance of developing into a permanent addition to our vocabulary. Only few of them will remain as serious candidates for the dictionary. Books especially about new words are abundant. However, only a few scholars have ventured to propose factors that make for the success of new words. One is Goran Kjellmer, whose article Potential Words in the journal Word for August 2000 also reviews previous proposals. The other is the executive secretary of American Dialect Society, Allan Metcalf who proposed the FUDGE scale. The two reached different conclusions. Along with books and periodicals, there is the Internet. In particular, it makes my extensive searches for examples of how words are actually used today possible. Here the author has searched thousands of pages indexed by Google.com countless times to find current uses of words under discussion. A jump of several decades has showed us more researches on the neologisms. Language reflects our life, and the research on the neologisms has never been stopped. By collecting new words or phrases occurring in languages, the previous researches have provided precious materials for the further exploration in this field. Therefore, a careful look at the research background of neologisms carries an essential academic significance. In china, the study of neologism began from 1980s. Most of the specific works and papers are mere introduction of theories from abroad lacking of much original study. To keep up with the latest English vocabulary is really difficult, thus a thorough and systematic analysis about English new words is of practical significance both in learning and teaching of English as a foreign language. Part 02: Factors for the Rise of English Neologisms The resaons beyond the rise of new words are numouroes, some are internal causes or linguistic (phonological, morpho-syntactic, lexical or semantic) , others are external which , we will see in this part. Mcmahon M.S (1994: 179-182) discusses causes of semantic change and describes the following: Linguistic causes Historical causes (subdivided into ideas and scientific concepts) Social causes Psychological causes (subdivided into emotive factors and taboo) Foreign influence The need for a new name 2.1. Sociolcultural Changes: 2.1.1. New ideas in Society and Culture. Changes in social outlook and manners of behavior call for new terms such as beatnik, peacenik, and hippie. Even new culinary arrangements demand new labels and in English they have some forth in the form of cheeseburger, chiliburger, mushroomburger, etc. (Anderson, 1973) Brian Foster presents us a striking example of how fast English vocabulary changes. In the year 1914, a young girl named Monica Baldwin entered a convent, remaining secluded there until 1941. When she returned to the outer world, she found herself in a totally different world: the conditions of everyday life altered by technical developments and social changes were beyond recognition. Whats more puzzling to her was the language people speaking. During a railway journey, the term luggage in advance meant nothing to her. Reading the daily newspapers made her feel idiotic in the extreme, because words like jazz, Gin, Hollywood, Cool, noshing and Isolationism were completely incomprehensible to her. Not to mention how bewildered she was at hearing friends say, Its your funeral or believe it or not. (Brian Foster, 1981) 2.1.2. Disguising Language, Misnomers Misnomers are words that replace taboo words or banned words.In order not to deceive the hearer, the taboo words are replaced to disguise their unpleaseant meaning.Examples: E. friendly fire instead of bombardment by own troops. 2.1.3.Prestige, Fashion The superiority of a group or politics leads people to use some linguistic elements (words, morphemes, morphs, sounds) from the prestigious group. Example: English, for instance, borrowed from French during the ME. period because the upper social classes were made up of French people:e.g. garment, flower, rose, face, prince, hour, question, dance, fork, royal, loyal, fine, zero are all Gallicisms. An other vivid example is English which is now the most prestigious language in many parts of the world. 2.1.4.Social, or Demographic, Reasons Here, it means the contact between different social groups. As a result of this contact, new lexical items appear. In the history of the English language, the two prominent instances of exchanges between two social groups were the one with the Vikings in the 8th to 11th centuries and the one with the French in the 11th to 15th centuries.Examples: The inherited ey is replaced by Scandinavian egg, the inherited nimen is replaced by Scandinavian taken except for theform benumb, throwen is supplemented by Scandinavian casten; early French loans are army, carpenter, catch. 2.1.5.Culture-Induced Salience of a Concept (Cultural Salience) The salience or the importance of concepts change with change of culture. Example: In the US, a lot of metaphors in general language have been taken from the field of baseball, e.g. to be off base to be completely wrong, to hit a home run to be highly successful and from the field of entrepreneurship. 2.1.6.Word-Play The category of word play includes humor, irony and puns. Although word-play often goes hand in hand with other factors (such as taboo, prestige or anthropological salience), it can also trigger lexical change on its own. Example: to take French leave to leave secretly (without paying), to cool look ( 2.2 Technological Changes New science leads to new words. Aristotle and Newton were neologists.They used new lexicon and new defintions to explain the theory of dynamics Thus, there is no new knowledge without new terms or concepts.Generally a new invention or discovery holds the name of the inventor. Sometimes some technical new words can be found in linguistics such as hypercorrection, allomorph, etc. The word software for example, that computer term was invented by John W. Tukey, a statistician at Princeton University. As long ago as 1958, he used the word in the American Mathematical Monthly. Today the software comprising the carefully planned interpretive routines, compilers, and other aspects of automotive programming are at least as important to the modern electronic calculator as its hardware of tubes, transistors, wires, tapes and the like. Tukey was already known for inventing another now- famous computer term. 2.3 Economic Changes Economic field has a great impact on language.We are in a competition age.This leads to new brand names that want to find a place in the economy market.The success of the product causes the suceesss of its name.The owner of the product has to spend too much money to make the prdut well-known.This is done via advertisemnts to convice peole tp but it and name it as it was advertised.Its name will be a new word in the society. The example of Coca-Cola Company is a good example.due to the geat success of Coke, people can ask for a coke yet they will be satisfied if they are given pepsi , i.e. the word Coke nowadays refers to a soft drink like a coke. Some technical and medical brands find their way in general vocabulary. Examples: à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Aspirin: a name for acetylsalicylic acid, trademarked by the Bayer Company of Germany at the start of the twentieth century. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Elevator and escalator: both originally trademarks of the Otis Elevator Company. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Zipper: a name given to a separable fastener by the B.F. Goodrich Company many years after it was invented. The new name helped the zipper attain popularity in the 1930s. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Loafer: for a moccasin-like shoe. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Cellophane: for a transparent wrap made of cellulose. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Granola: a trademark registered in 1886 by W K. Kellogg, now used for a natural kind of breakfast cereal. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ping-pong: for table tennis, a trademark registered by Parker Brothers in 1901. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Xerox: for photocopier. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Kleenex: for facial tissue. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Band-Aid: for adhesive bandage. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Tupperware: for storage container. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Scotch tape: for transparent adhesive tape. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Jazzercise: for exercise to jazz music. 2.4. Political Changes. Some important political changes infulence vocabulary and give birth to new words and concepts. For instance, when Mr. Bill Clinton was elected as the president of the US. His name has been associated with many political words. His policy is Clintonian, he is carrying out the Clintionism, his economics policy is Clintonomics, and his supporters were called Clintonites, he ultimately wanted to realize his Clintonization. Another recent political event that took place on Septembet the eleventh has brought a neologism in the American society.Because of the striking coincidence that 911 is the telephone number to call for help in an emergency, that numerical designation of this event has been a success. The events of that day have resulted in a new term: ground zero, for the place of impact, the center of destruction in New York City where the World Trade Towers once stood. That phrase has succeeded because it is not really new; its an old term for the location on the ground directly under a vast atomic explosion, corresponding to air zero, the location in the air above the ground where the bomb goes off. No one knows who first said ground zero in reference to the site where the World Trade Towers were attacked and collapsed, but the term immediately caught on because of its familiarity and emotional power. Part 03: Success of English Neologisms In the previous section, we have seen the reasons of the rise of the new words and how they become part of language.In this part; we will tackle the reasons that make a word successful or the reasons that make a word part of general language dictionary. 3.1 The occurrences The frequency of the new word in a society makes it successful.If the neologisms appears in many various sources such newspapers, magazines and books, it will be included in general dictionaries and becomes a familiar word and no more neologism.This mean the the word becomes popular if it is cited in many sources 3.2 Variety among sources A neologism in its first appearance is common for only a special field .Thus, it is found in technical dictionaries .Consequently , general dictioanries exclude technical terms .But there are some exceptions and some technical words find their place in general dictionaries due to their range in many sources.Example , the phrase intellectual property was limited to some branches .Nowadays, it is widely spead thanks to the new technologies and inventions in each field . 3.3 Cruciality in a given field Sheidlower defines cruciality as the need for a word to exist (35). Lets take the example of the acronym AIDS invented in 1982.This acronym is still the given name to this killing disease.It will hold the same name even if a cure is invented for this disease because of the importance and cruciality of this sickness, its referent is a crucial matter in society (qtd. in Sheidlower 35). The word whirlpooling, though it is the only word used to describe such a behaviour, it is not included in a general dictionary because the phenomenon is rare and unusual , rare and unusual phenomenon (qtd. in Sheidlower 36). 3.4 Durability or Endurance ( Existance) Each new word appears in a specific period of time.But if it has suffiecient evidence such as frequency of occurrences, range among sources, cruciality in a given field, it may be included in a general dictionary. New Deal is a good example here.So some neologisms refer to their time period, culture, policies and the like. Conclusion If a word wants to stay alive, it has to be admitted widely in public speech and used by mass media, and/or personalities, such as politicians, authors etc. (Barnhart 56). Depending on the editor and on what kind of dictionary a coinage should enter, one factor might be more of a value than another. Of the many thousands new words created each year, about 200 new words fulfill the above-mentioned conditions and make their way into a standard dictionary. Authors, TV, radio and news reporters use these new terms on a large scale, and thus they become vogue words for a certain period of time or even forever (Barnhart 56). But then the struggle of a new word is not over yet. If it is not used anymore or lost its importance, it will be deleted in the end (Sheidlower 38). Practical considerations play their part in the march of a word into a dictionary. Chief among these is the scope of the dictionary and its physical limitations. Because general lexicography is a commercial art form, dictionaries reflect the judgment of their makers and the needs of their publishers. Consequently, no dictionary is complete. There is a considerable difference between general dictionaries and Among the New Words. The dictionaries aim is to supplement the existing English vocabulary, whereas Among the New Words aims to chronicle the development of the English language (Barnhart 59). For this reason, these criteria stated above (2.4.1 to 2.4.4) hardly apply to Among the New Words.

Mistreatment Of Mentally Ill Patients Social Work Essay

Mistreatment Of Mentally Ill Patients Social Work Essay People suffering from mental illness are often looked differently and do not have equal access to all the opportunities in life. Though, patients family and the health care providers can play a fundamental role in the lives of these mentally ill people. Through offering a proficient care with warmth attitude they can certainly bring an optimistic change in them. But, imagine what if these caregivers are the reason of mistreatment with mental patients? This is an ethical issue which I recently came across during my clinicals and therefore decided to explore it in depth. Thus, the following paper is an attempt to analyze this issue by integrating an ethical model, highlight its significance and to discuss the causes, effects on mental health and practical strategies to overcome this immoral issue of mistreatment with mental patients. On my clinical to psychiatric ward civil hospital I encountered a 60 years old female, married and diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The chief complaints of patient were severe headache and aggressive behavior. Since 20 years patient had history of recurrent depressive illness characterized by weeping spells and low energy. On asking about the support system patient became gloomy and said I am alone and nobody likes to be with me and care for me. Further she said that due to her habit of cleaning things again and again her family becomes angry and speaks harshly to her. On spending some time with patient I came to know that how much she loved them but nobody came to meet her since she had got admitted. After taking history of patient that day I also observed that when my patient called the nurse to inquire about the medication timings, nurse replied rudely that how many times you will ask the same thing again and again. You are mentally ill but please let us remain in good health and then that staff nurse after making vicious gesture got out of that ward. This incident made patient further depressed. It is an issue which is ethically wrong, as caregivers who should help the patient when they are in true need are abusing them. As the professional code of ethics explains the significance of this ethical issue, which is the base of social morality that first of all, do no harm. It also emphasizes that the purpose of nonmaleficence includes not only definite harm but also the risk of harm (Clinical Ethics, 2004). Therefore, an ethical person must be constantly careful about the possible negative consequences of his words and actions with the mental patients. Furthermore, according to the world health organization, In Pakistan we come across upsetting stories about the mistreatment of mentally ill people due to societal hostilities daily (Gadit, 2008). Though, it is difficult to understand why such people are maltreated in Pakistan, an Islamic coun try where religious teachings are followed. Therefore, to discover the reasons behind this immoral deed, to identify actions to lessen this in society and also to make the caregivers inculcate this thought to support these people in their difficult times, I consider this issue as significant and therefore decided to highlight it in my paper. As defined by SAVE project of social services that mistreatment is a breach of persons human and civil rights causing despair. And, this violation can appear once or constantly (SAVE Project, 1995). Mistreatment of elderly person may include physical, psychological or financial exploitation and it can be intended or unintended. Intentional mistreatment involves a purposeful effort to inflict harm such as physical abuse or mauling. On the other hand, unintentional abuse takes place when an unplanned action results in damage, such as ignorance or a lack of desire of the care providers to offer proper care (Jones, Holestege, Holstege, 1997). As verbalized by my client that at home she was beaten harshly and was always ignored by the caregivers. Moreover, nurse also verbally mistreated the patient and showed lack of desire to care. However, the empirically generated model, which is an ethical model, provided by Fulmer Malley (1987) gives in depth details of causes and risk factors lead ing to mistreatment in mental patients. They divided the causal factors of mistreatment into four major categories including physical and mental impairment of the patients, increased strain on caregivers, family history of domestic violence and the societal attitudes. This model elucidates that domestic violence such as abuse and neglect are the behaviors which are learned at home and are passed from one generation to the next. Thus, elder abuse may be a continual phenomenon learned in childhood. Secondly, the stress on caregivers can also lead to mistreatment. Facing behaviors by the elderly mental persons like drug abuse, recurrent falls, incontinence or aggressive behaviors, the caregivers become exhausted and can lash out their resentment on these innocent beings. As happened with my client that due to her habit of cleaning things repeatedly, caregivers always offended and taunted her. Other external stressors such as loss of job, personal illness or low income can also place ov erwhelming demands on care providers which results in violent behaviors. Furthermore, this model suggests that the ill health of elderly persons in itself is a reason for abuse. Functional impairments lead to dependency on a caregiver for the activities of daily living. As these needs raises, the stress level of caregivers further increases. As faced by my patient, who was always reliant upon her family and husband for daily routine work. This created frustration for the family and at last they left her at psychiatric hospital. Lastly, there are several societal attitudes that contribute to mental persons maltreatment. Among these attitudes, Stigma is the most common in psychiatric settings. There are many reports affirming that such patients are teased in communities by unkind names (Gadit, 2008). Moreover, according to the World Health Report (2001), stigma and prejudice are the main hindrance faced by the mentally ill today, these abstain them from seeking appropriate care (Ramee la, 2004). Besides this, patients are also mistreated in the ward settings by the staffs, as occurred with my client. This is because, persons in institutional care are dependant, extremely fragile or chronically ill. In addition, problems such as low salaries, staff shortages and poor working environment increase the chances of mistreatment. (Lucas Stevenson, 2006). As the fundamental duty of all care providers is to perform efforts to improve the quality of life of patients. However, if these caregivers would show such an abusive behavior to the mental patients this will affect their psychological as well as physiological health. As shown in my client who along with psychological symptoms also suffered from insomnia and decreased appetite due to worries of being alone. Besides, as mentioned in literature that, negative behaviors and biases towards those having mental illness is the greatest hurdle to recovery (Chambers et al., 2010). Like, it was observed in my patient who lost all the hopes of being in normal condition as before. This was shown in her verbal comments that everyone thinks that I am mad and therefore behaves with me in harsh manner and I am sure I will never be fine again. This shows that how important role the caregivers and their attitude play in the development of mental patients. As very rightly said that Support has been kn own to help influence and motivate a behavior change in a positive way (Clark et al., 2005, p.20). Thus, if there would be lack of support system for these people it would lower their self esteem, intrinsic motivation and leads to decrease self concept (Lowder, 2007). If these mentally un well people are discriminated, this would hinder their ability to assimilate into society and this can lead to social isolation. Also, according to labeling theory, that once public label these people as mentally ill, their presence becomes undesirable in community hence leading them to social seclusion (Lowder, 2007). As happened with my client that when she asked her husband once to meet their relatives, he had beaten her scarcely with wooden stick just because he felt ashamed to take her in family gatherings. This affected her personality immensely and from that onwards she herself remained lonely and isolated. By reflecting upon this we can imagine that how a single dishonest action or altitude of caregivers can massively effect patients life. In addition, the interpersonal model of violence in mental health by Chappell and De Martino (2003) also agrees to the point that if patients needs and wishes are blocked till great extent, it would intensely affect patients mental health hence leading to disturbing effects such as ineffective adherence to treatment schedule and destruction of self (See appendices). Like, my patient tried several times to commit suicide in order to decrease her loneliness and suppress her aggression towards others. This show that it is very significant for caregivers to strengthen the mental health of these people rather than making them more vulnerable to harmful health consequences as conferred above. After thorough literature search I found out some practical interventions to promote the ways of reducing mistreatment with mental patients. It would be on individual, family, community and government level. At individual level, patients should be granted liberty to take decisions regarding their life and should not be tortured or harmed. This is supported by Human Rights Act (1998) that states no one shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (Clinical ethics, 2004, p.24). In addition, the stair case model illuminates intervention strategies concerning abuse prevention in 3 steps which are reluctance, recognition and rebuilding. This includes interventions such as breaking through denial, decreasing social loneliness, sorrow and self blame, providing teaching and advocacy (Loughlin Duggan, 1998). Health care professionals can integrate these interventions in their care framework. I also attempted to apply this model in my patients care. I tried to make my client verbalize her feelings by providing her concrete objects like blank paper and colors. This helped her in verbalizing her internal feelings which were not shared with others since long time. Moreover, throughout my clinical weeks I remained engaged in care through non judgmental speech and body language. As supported by literature that your speech and nature should convey respect and a non-judgmental attitude (Loughlin Duggan,1998). To lessen social isolation, I involved my client in group occupational therapy and also focused on her hobbies that were, drawing and coloring the religious names. In this way I was able to socialize her to some extent. As supported by literature that, Support groups provide a channel for people with OCD to get emotional support while learning how to manage their condition. Also, this helps victims to lessen the barriers that the memories of abuse place in the way of normal life (Davis, 2008; Child abuse, CPS facts). In addition, abuse creates sense of hopelessness and low self esteem in patients as discussed earlier therefore caregivers should be taught to encourage and praise clients on their little efforts to boost their self concept. On family level, a good communication and involvement in patient care can be a best defense against mistreatment. Moreover, providing psycho education can also enable family members to remain involved in the care. As, the stress level of caregivers can also be reduced by providing tips of care giving to them and involving in family therapy (Davis, 2008). At community level, social and health workers including community leaders should have responsibility for identifying cases of mistreatment and then organizing interventions to lessen the risk of any future abuse (Loughlin Duggan, 1998). Moreover, I recommend that the psychological counseling services as well as social gathering area for mental patients should be established in the community, where these people can socialize themselves. On government level, various laws and punishments for the abusers and extensive awareness campaigns on care and destigmatization of mental illness should be arranged (Raj, 2009). Besides, government s hould also set up monitoring system to ensure that human rights are being followed in all psychiatric facilities (Gadit, 2008). Lastly, I recommend that with the help of mass media cases of abuse with mental patients should be reported so that the strategies should be planned on local and national level to minimize the risk of any future abuse. It was a good learning experience for me to write a scholarly paper. I have learnt the importance of promoting mental health without abusive and negative attitude. Moreover, faculty facilitation and literature review helped me to learn and integrate all concepts related to the issue which will help me in my future clinical settings. In conclusion, the above provided evidences are overwhelming that the mistreatment with mental patients is the disobedience of human rights as strongly proved by human rights declaration that All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. (UDHR, 2006, p.2). In addition, the paper also discussed the causes and consequences of this immoral issue of mistreatment with mental patients. Now, its the duty of caregivers to adhere to the strategies provided above, in order to offer a competent care with encouraging attitude and bring a positive change in the lives of these people.

Sister Carrie :: essays research papers

In August of 1889, Carrie Meeber leaves her small town to find employment in the city of Chicago. Theodore Dreiser, the author of Sister Carrie, informs the reader that, "Self-interest with her was high, but not strong. It was nevertheless her guiding characteristic.". With her youth and innocence she hopes to seek employment so that she can get and buy all the nice things that she wants. Carrie does not have any idea how hard this is going to be. When she tries to find a job, she is scared. Carrie has no skills to offer an employer, no job experience, and her clothing was of poor quality. Chicago was a large city, but society at that time did not have many job opportunities for working women. The only jobs that Carrie could possibly get were in the factories that, paid low wages, had poor working conditions, and long hours. She knew that after she paid rent to her brother-in-law, she would have very little left to buy all the beautiful things that she longed for. When Carrie took the job at the shoe factory, she did not like the hard work and considered the other women who worked there to be common. When winter arrived, Carrie got sick and stayed home from work which caused her to lose her job. On the train to Chicago, Carrie had met a traveling salesman, Charlie H. Drouet. She is impressed by the way he talks and dresses. When they meet again, Drouet is aware of her beauty and innocence and he hopes to charm and seduce her. He "lends" Carrie money to buy nice winter clothes, treats her to fine meals, takes her to the theater, and shows her the sights of Chicago. Because Carrie is young and inexperienced in the world of men, she is not wise enough to understand where all Drouet's attention is leading toward. Although she senses that the money should be given back, her desire and longing for the good things in life are so powerful that she ignores her beliefs in what is right and wrong. Unable to find another job, Carries is forced to make a decision, returning to Wisconsin or letting Drouet keep her as his mistress. Choosing to remain with Drouet was an extraordinary decision. This went against everything society taught. It was unthinkable for any decent woman to live with a man without marriage.

april 19 :: essays research papers

PATRIOT ACT FACT OF THE DAY: In passing the Patriot Act, Congress established standards in oversight for the use of the Act's provisions. For example, Section 1001 of the Patriot Act requires the inspector general of the Department of Justice to determine and report to Congress civil liberties violations. Florida U.S. Attorney Defends PATRIOT Act In a letter to the Florida Times Union, U.S. Attorney Paul Perez explains the success of the PATRIOT Act in protecting Americans from terrorism: â€Å""The Patriot Act did two things to correct major weaknesses in our nation's pre-Sept. 11, 2001, defenses. First, it lowered the bureaucratic and legal wall that had prevented law enforcement and the intelligence community from sharing information with each other about terrorist operatives and plans. † Second, the Patriot Act updated our legal tools, allowing our nation's justice community to use court-approved legal authorities for terrorist investigations that had long been used in investigations of drug smugglers and organized crime. Three years after the passage of the Patriot Act, we can point to a nation that is safer and more secure. Sadly, in this important public debate about freedom and national security, critics have come forward to attack the Patriot Act unfairly, claiming the law endangers our individual rights and our civil liberties."† USA PATRIOT Act News Archive April 18, 2005 PATRIOT ACT FACT OF THE DAY: The Patriot Act allows investigators to use the tools that were already available to investigate organized crime and drug trafficking. As Sen. Joe Biden (DE) explained during the floor debate about the Act, â€Å"the FBI could get a wiretap to investigate the mafia, but they could not get one to investigate terrorists. To put it bluntly, that was crazy! What’s good for the mob should be good for terrorists.† (Cong. Rec., 10/25/01) Former Gov. Racicot corrects misconceptions about PATRIOT Act In an op-ed in the Billings Gazette, Gov. Racicot shows how the PATRIOT Act took down the â€Å"wall† and updated terrorist investigators’ tools: â€Å"The Patriot Act broke down the ‘wall’ that separated law enforcement and intelligence investigations. The 9/11 Commission cited that wall as a central failing in our national security preparedness because it did not allow intelligence officers and criminal investigators to coordinate their information. The Patriot Act updated the tools available to law enforcement with new technology. Also, the Patriot Act took many of the tools available in organized crime and drug trafficking cases and made them available to terrorist investigations.† April 15, 2005

Suspense in Steven Spielbergs Movie Jaws Essay example -- Movie Film

Suspense in Steven Spielberg's Movie Jaws Steven Spielberg, the creator of Jaws, uses many different techniques to draw in the suspense of viewers and to capture their imagination. These techniques include special effects – to create tension, different camera angles – to show facial expressions and group shots. The classic Jaws music, known by millions of people, also helps build up tension, to let us know when the shark is approaching. He uses colours, so that we can associate signs and symbols to forthcoming events, e.g. the colour red is associated with danger. We will be using all of the above devices to help analyse different parts of the film.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As soon as the film starts, from the title sequence, these techniques are being used. The music begins very quietly and slowly. In my opinion, I get the impression that danger is on its way, and, also, it is dark, which builds up the suspense. The opening credits are written a sharp pointy writing, which is perhaps suggesting the teeth of the shark, and its capabilities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As the scene changes, the suspense and anxiety increases, because we are now watching the film from the sharks point of view but, as the shark is swimming through the water, there is a lot of weeds in his way, which makes the audience very agitated, and the speed of the shark may suggest that he is anxious to get somewhere.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The music then starts to build up, by getting louder and faster. This starts to get the audience thinking, and wondering what will happen next. It builds up a lot of tension and suspense, and you seem, to know that danger is getting closer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After this event, the atmosphere changes dramatically. It becomes livelier, and there is an old-fashioned feeling, as there is a mouth organ being played in the background. Everybody seems to be having fun, which does make them seem quite a lot more vulnerable, as they are unaware of the danger.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is also a large bonfire on the beach, which gives the audience a sense of safety, but also, fire means danger, so it makes you unsure. The large amount of people also gives you a sense of safety, but again this is dampened by the fact that they are in the dark, making them seem vulnerable, also this makes their vision very scarce, as it is the dark, and they can’t see very far.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The third shot reminds us of the danger, as you have pushed the... ...n see that Brody does not feel safe, and it makes Brody look really vulnerable.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When you first see the shark leaving the docks, you watch them leave through a pair of shark jaws. When I saw this, I immediately thought that Brody, Hooper and Quinn would encounter the shark, and that it wasn’t going to be an easy trip. Seeing the shark jaws also builds up tension.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My fifth advice is when Quinn lies on the radio. He tells people on shore that everything is fine, and they have nothing to worry about, but at this point in the film, they are actually â€Å"battling† the shark. This leads the viewers to false pretences, as you can see what is happening, and I got the impression that Quinn did not want the people on the other end of the radio to know the real capabilities of the shark. I also got the impression that Quinn did not want any help, as if it would degrade him, he had to do it all on his own.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My last device is where the music changes, and becomes a more happy song. This happens when the first barrel is attached to the shark, and this leads the viewers to believe that Quinn, Hooper and Brody have virtually beaten the shark, but in fact they are no where near.

After Hope And Change

Despite winning reelection, President Obama had joined a group of three to her previous incumbents (Eisenhower, Wilson, and Clinton) who had all entered office origin anally with a united government in their very first term and then won reelection with a did vided government. Obama had lost his seats on the House of Representatives. Will on was the only other president in history to lose more seats than President Obama. The novel speaks on how five incumbent presidents since 1 896 had lost reel action and then begins to explain why those same factors didn't apply to President Obama.Us memorize the four arguments the authors make. There are multiple reasons Barrack Beam's 201 2 presidential reelection was slight victory although he won reelection, it was fairly close in the polls. The opponent NT Mitt Rooney didn't have a proficient performance when he had to present his plan NSA on if he was to be elected, not only did this show some of his flaws as a speaker but al so as a candidate . Rooney had way too many weak points that Obama was able to TA eke advantage of to convince the American people he was still their best option. R money pushed his few advantages way too far.He stayed on one topic the entire Tim e and would mindlessly talk about that same subject, which was a flaw on his part especial Y close to the elections. If Mitt Rooney had given better speeches and realized some of his mistakes before elections, the outcome may have been different in 2012. Summarize the arguments that the authors made concerning the results from the 2012 elections and what they may tell us about the 2016 elections. The first point made by the authors uses statistics to predict that the president till election in 2016 will be a battle for the most swing states.In 2012, Barrack Obama had gained the states that he won in his previous election. These states had also been the as me couple dates that the last three democratic presidential candidates had also won as well. Rooney had also won the states that previous republican candidates had won as well. There were only n,vow states that had changed between the 2008 and 2012 elections. Became use of how the republicans have lost the last two presidential elections (Including the 201 2 elections), they have some serious work to do and they must pull off swinging multiple s dates in the 201 6 elections (something that hasn't happened in half a century).The second point of the chapter speaks on the changes in demography. In bet when the ears of 2008 and 201 2 percentages of the ethnic groups that vote democrat increased very high. These voter increases were very noticeable with an increase in youth h support, especially for democrats. Without any explanation the numbers of ethnic race s that vote republican dropped. The very republican votes that dropped during the elect On W ere surprisingly white males. This made an impression that the youth were in co melt support of Obama. This is important because in the futu re it would seem that they will go on to support the democrats.At the same time it is very possible that the turn UT was quite low in the 201 2 race turnout for many favorable republican categories w as quite lower than expected. Minorities refused to vote for Mitt Rooney simply because SE their identity with him was almost nonexistent if he would become the next preside .NET. This very fact coupled those not in support of Obama, this led to people not voting at all, which severely hurt the republican parry's chances of winning the race. Minor ties can always change their mind on who they will vote for or even if they should vote at all depending on the status of the economy at that time.That very fact may lead o the republicans doing better with appeal to the minorities in the 2016 elections, a ND they could sway them, especially if no democrat could like President Obama. The final point discusses the reasoning of both democrats and republicans. D emaciates have always been focused on social justice, and the use of more federal govern moment plans, and redistributions policies. Democratic policies will be in full support of those whose jobs are given to by the government and those who receive benefits FRR mom the government (welfare, healthcare, etc).Meanwhile, the republicans are focuses on lowering taxes from the government, dividend liberty in the economic arena, a achieving a small federal government. The Democrats Will have those who chi goose to receive benefits from the government policies gravitate to their side, while re publicans will always focus on bringing rich businessmen who support themselves to the Eire side. Many republicans have joined the party because they are tired of an overpower erring federal government and paying high taxes.Chapter 2 Questions What were the issues and characteristics of politics arising from President b mama's first term hat figured in the 201 2 election. Give brief summaries Of what was involved I n these issues and the positions that Democrats and Republicans held in order to demonstrate t hat you have a general understanding of these issues. The unemployment rate during the recent recession was very shaky going up and down during the years of 2010, 2011 , 2012. There was a brief boom of jobs created during this period, this would end up disintegrating within a short period of time.Demo rats had originally said that during the time of President Beam's first term that he ha d actually ordered the high unemployment rate in America. Republicans were found to have said that because of how slowly the improvement of the economy has been, press dent Beam's policies in office slowed down the natural progress of improving the economy. This made their case for the recession being one of the longest ever. The flourishing of the nationwide deficit and debt rolled over onto President Beam's first term in 2008. In the â€Å"Obama era†, the national debt never fell below the amount off trillion dolla rs.The average in the first term was 1. 33 trillion dollars. This peer entangle was appalling because no one could have possibly predicted such a number a coo plea yea RSI before Beam's election. The overall federal spending amount of the GAP ha d increased nearly 5% from 2007 to 2012. Republicans went on to say that Barrack Obama presidency was the true cause of all of the spending. To counter that statement NT, Democrats had responded saying that an increase in the deficit was just as UN avoidable as the last President who happened to be a republican (George W.Bush) who ha d originally put America in this very predicament. Political popularization had become a big problem during Beam's first term. In such a divided government, reaching an agreement between both democrats and re publicans was extremely difficult. What did the 2010 midterms reveal about politics nationally? It was revealed that the American people were heavily in support of Republican NSA Simply because President Be am's first term had not been the best in the â€Å"popularity y contest†. It exposed many of the ideologies of the American people with the unveiling of a now completely divided government.How did President Obama improve his political position leading into the election? President Obama began to improve his political position by lowering the socio I security tax by two percent of the original price in December of 201 1. This was to been fit lower income workers whose payroll tax was more than their income tax. Such a pop were play in office proved that Obama was in support Of the lower and middle classes and that unlike republicans the upper class wasn't a priority. The Occupy Wall Street Movement that began in mid September 2011 also boo Existed President Obama.The movement/ strike blamed the top â€Å"one percent' of the country (Rich) for all the problems with the current economy. The movement also bell paved that he 1% has benefited while the rest of the country is in suf fering. Obama had decided that he was indeed support of those who weren't wealthy which politically is a strong decision because it accounts for 99% of the nation President Obama benefited from the reports of his speech after the beginning Eng of The Occupy Movement stating that the unemployment rate had actually fallen fro m 9% to 8. % within the time period of early December 2011 to late March 2012. Chapter 3 Questions What reasons do the authors give as to why it was unlikely that Mitt Rooney would win the nomination? It was very unlikely that Mitt Rooney would end up winning the nomination f president because he was seen as â€Å"an uncomfortable fit† because he only fit n one of the three factions of the GOP.He appealed to many of the old school republicans with his strong corporate background in big business, but was considered to be very weak with the other two factions of the GOP (social and Christian conservatives care about t he laws of abortion, same sex marriage, and other concerns). The book describes two structural changes that had an impact on the amino Zion process: Republicans limiting winner aka all primaries until after April 1 and the changes in the laws regulating campaign finance. Summarize both changes and the effect they ha d on the nomination campaigns.

Trait-Based Pespectives of Leadership, Zaccaro (2007)

AbstractThis paper is an academic critique of an observational study research article written by Stephen J. Zaccaro (2007) entitled, Trait-Based Perspectives of Leadership. The trait-based perspective on leadership was dismissed by many scientific leadership researchers in the mid-20th century. A primary reason was that the research did not account for situational variance in leadership behavior. Quantitative analysis of leadership was difficult in the past. Recent improvements in research methods, such as statistics, have led to resurgence of interest in trait-based leadership theory.Zaccaro (2007) called for researchers to address fundamental issues or critical points, which he defined. He identified a defining core of leadership traits that transcend organizational domains. Finally, he summarized a multistage model that predicts various traits having more distal or proximal effects, accordingly. The author concludes with proposing future directions of research with the goal of ide ntifying universal qualities of effective leaders. IntroductionThe purpose behind this critique is to evaluate an observational study, published in 2007, by Stephen J. Zaccaro entitled, Trait-Based Perspectives of Leadership. The globally popular trait-based theory of leadership of the early 20th century lost credibility after World War II. Advances in quantitative analysis methods, concepts, and statistical models provided empirical data that challenged studies that had rejected leader trait models. Zaccaro postulated that by refining common traits and attributes of effective leaders into universally standard categories, such commonalities could be analyzed quantitatively.The author introduced four critical points to be considered in models and theories on trait-based leadership. First, the refinement of multiple leader traits and attributes must be made. Secondly, studies should address how joint combinations of characteristics have an influence on behavior. In this way he explain s the curvilinear  relationships of traits with outcomes that were used to discredit leadership-trait theories. Computer models may now calculate complex multiplicative and curvilinear relationships that were confounders in the past.Third, particular situations may predict success or failure depending various traits. Fourth, similar leader traits may be stable in cross situations while others may be situation-bound. Zacarro (2007) went on to provide a broader definition of leader trait that is focused on personality attributes. He then identified actual traits that are distally and proximally influenced by situational parameters. He then illustrated a multistage model that predicts various traits having more distal or proximal effects. MethodologyThe author conducted a literature review to build his four critical points. In this manner he was also able to refine the meaning of successful and effective leadership as, â€Å"fundamentally, influencing others by establishing a collec tive effort and managing, shaping, and developing the collective activities†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 9). He then clarified the role of situations into three circumstances which he calls arguments.He analyzed models of leader individual difference and performance into his own, entitled, A Model of Leader Attributes and Leader Performance.Findings and InterpretationsThis category is not applicable in this case since the proposed model has not been tested sufficiently.ConclusionsThe author concludes with proposing a number of possible future directions of research with the goal of identifying universal qualities of effective leaders. His belief is that these recommendations combined with modern methodological and statistical resources will help reach this goal.

How Has Computer Hacking Interfered Modern Society Essay

How has computing machine choping inferred modern society? In this transition I will be speaking briefly about the basicss of computing machine choping from the yesteryear to the present. Computer hacking has changed more over clip ensuing in computing machine outgrowths to corporate system closures. This research paper will be speaking about three major parts of computing machine hacking. The first construct of hacking is the beginning of creative activity. The following portion will be how hacking has affect on the contemporary society. Finally. the last piece of information will be traveling over the hereafter of system choping. What is a drudge you may inquire your ego but non hold an reply or one word phrase for the term? A drudge has ever been a sort of cutoff or alteration. a manner to short-circuit or make over the standard operation of an object or system. The first computing machine hackers emerge at MIT. They borrow their name from a term to depict members of a theoretical account train group at the school who hack the electric trains. paths. and switches to do them execute faster and otherwise. A few of the members transfer their wonder and set uping accomplishments to the new mainframe calculating systems being studied and developed on campus. Choping groups begin to organize. Among the first are Legion of Doom in the United States. and Chaos Computer Club in Germany. The film â€Å"War Games† introduces the populace to choping. A computing machine hacker intends to destroy concerns executing an act much more unprincipled than an enthusiastic life scientist ‘hacking’ off at work or theory. The truth is that computing machine hacking is in fact easy in the general sense. but more consideration must be given. Some facets of choping are used in mundane life and you may non cognize that accessing wireless cyberspace from another person’s history is considered wireless choping even though your adoption there connexion. During the 1970’s. a different sort of hacker appeared: the phreaks or phone hackers. They learned ways to chop the telephonic system and do phone calls for free. Within these group of people. a phreaker became celebrated because a simple find. John Draper. besides known as Captain Crunch. found that he could do long distance calls with a whistling. He built a blue box that could make this and the Esquire magazine published an article on how to construct them. Fascinated by this find. two childs. Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs. decided to sell these bluish boxes. get downing a concern friendly relationship which resulted in the initiation of Apple. By the 1980’s. phreaks started to migrate to computing machines. and the first Bulletin Board Systems ( BBS ) appeared. BBS are like the yokel groups of today. were people posted messages on any sort of subject. The BBS used by hackers specialized in tips on how to interrupt into computing machines. how to utilize stolen recognition card Numberss and portion stolen computing machine watchwords. It wasn’t until 1986 that the U. S. authorities realized the danger that hackers represented to the national security. As a manner to antagonize this threat. the Congress passed the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. doing computing machine interrupting a offense across the state. During the 1990’s. when the usage of the cyberspace became widespread around the universe. hackers multiplied. but it wasn’t until the terminal of the decennary that system’s security became mainstream among the populace. Today. we are accustomed to hackers. crackers. viruses. Trojans. worms and all of the techniques we need to follow to battle them. Hackers were classified into three unusual types the first class is called In-house hacker. In-house hacker is an employee who is responsible for operating and keeping the system. who interacts instantly with the system as a coder or informations entry employee and is cognizant of all the system security capablenesss and spreads. He and should be the guard of the system but for different motives he hacks the system and gets what he needs bewraying all the trust given to him. The 2nd type is called ace hacker who doesn’t interact with the system but at the same clip proctors the system on day-to-day footing and has an oculus on what is traveling on and what type of informations is entered at what clip so depending on the entries he decides the minute he should acquire these information and recover them for personal motives while the 3rd type is called professional hacker and this hacker is really strong and capable of acquiring any type of informations. he has the ability of carrying the user or the operator to supply him with the needed information by programming fast ones or user friendly screens and this sort of hackers frequently gets alone preparation specially when being used in military undertakings as what happened in the cold war. Thesiss are merely brief ways hackers have impacted the modern universe we all live in. Within the past twelvemonth at that place have been two major instances right in the country. Both involve extended harm. and both are presently in tribunal. The closest instance is that of Thomas Crandall. otherwise known as St. Elmo’s Fire. Crandall is accused of estroying attending and subject records in a computing machine at Central Technical and Vocational Center. Police charge that Crandall used a personal computing machine at his place to entree the computing machine. He is besides accused of making $ 25. 000 in harm to files at Waste Management Inc. of Oakbrook. Ill. Crandall’s lawyer claims that many other pupils besides had entree to the computing machine. and that to individual out Crandall in unjust. Hackers are responsible of the immense development in computing machine and cyberspace engineering. but these yearss we consider them as stealers and interlopers who penetra ted our ain privateness and used the accomplishments they were buttockss for their ain benefit. Hackers have different sentiments and motives. However. they all portion the spirit of challenge and ever seeking to turn out their capablenesss of making what all believe is impossible possibly because they were mistreated. or uncertainties surrounded their abilities and past accomplishments. Hackers believe that information should be shared and they fight against information owning. Effectss that choping caused and still doing to the society can’t be ignored. Hacking nowadays is taking new stages and the danger is increasing because we are now populating in a society that runs by ICT. and any onslaught to the ICT particularly in advanced states will do critical effects. ICT still lacks a powerful security tools that are capable of tracking. catching hackers. and protecting computing machine systems from their onslaughts. My ain position is that the best manner to protect ICT from hackers is to analyze their psychological science and seek to understand their manner of thought. because hackers are human existences. who have two sides ; evil and good. and they used to demo their good side but all of a sudden they turned to be evil. The grounds which caused the transmutation from good to evil persons should be studied and given the highest precedence in the war against hackers because since we put our custodies on the cause. we can repair it to make for better effects. Peoples can grocery store. earn grades. receive bank statements and pay measures from their laptop or Personal computer. The possibilities are endless when it comes to simplifying life with the aid of the World Wide Web. but at the same clip possibilities are eternal hackers to perplex your life with cyber offenses. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines a hacker as both â€Å"an expert at programming and work outing jobs with a computer† and â€Å"a individual who illicitly additions entree to and sometimes tamping bars with information in a computing machine system. † Those three grounds I have stated above were the hackings past present and future. Until engineering Michigans turning the possibility of hackers is limited less.

Family Structure in India

Niranjan, S. ; Sureender, S. and Rao, G. Rama. : Family Structure in India Evidence from NFHS. Demography India. 27(2). 1998. P. 287-300. Family Structure in India – Evidence from NFHS S. Niranjan, S. Sureenderand G. Rama Rao Introduction With the increase in the urbanization and industrialization, the concept of family in India, which once was to create and maintain a common culture among the members of the family, is undergoing changes.However according to Beteille (1964), inspite of socio-economic and political changes, family life and family structure have remained as an integral part of Indian society with the ‘spirit of family solidarity' as the sustaining power. Ross (1961) found that many Indians went through changes in the type of family in which they lived in various sequences: large joint family, small joint family, nuclear family, and nuclear family with dependants.D'Souza (1971) argues that, the Indian family has been subjected to stress and strain, and insp ite of resistance to change over the centuries, is slowly undergoing a process of change significantly. According to Cohen (1981) â€Å"households have reputedly been shrinking in size for ten thousand years or more, right up to the present, and this is a result of an evolving technology that requires fewer co-operating people to secure food, rear children, and look after the sick†.Though it is generally felt that joint families, whose members were bound together by ties of common ancestry and common property dominate in the past, there are diverging views regarding the same. Gore (1968) says, â€Å"the fraternal or collateral joint family was never the most common form†. Goode (1968) asserts that the large joint family was not common at any time in India perhaps because of the great forces of fission, initially between daughters-in-law and later between brothers.In a study of three villages located in three different districts in Karnataka state, two-thirds of the fam ilies were nuclear and the rest were different forms of joint family (Rao, Kulkarni and Rayappa, 1986). Although it can be argued that over the years joint family is slowly giving way to nuclear families, a number of studies reveal that despite the fact of living in the nuclear family set-up many functional relationships are maintained with the nonresidential family members (Agarwala, 1962; Desai, 1964; Kapadia, 1969; Gore, 1968).As still in India most of the marriages are arranged by the parents, marital life begins in the parents family and later depending on the situation, a dwelling unit is arranged by the parents or other older members of the family (Richard et 1 al. , 1985). Hence, it is possible that the decisions taken by the members of the nuclear family are guided by their parents and relatives. However, this to an extent depends on the different types of family structure. Generally, family types are classified conveniently in many of the studies as nuclear and joint famil ies.In such a case, it would be rather difficult to conclude meaningfully about the significance of these family types on its family members. To be precise, family types are classified differently by various scholars. Kapadia (1969) have identified two broad family types namely; nuclear and joint/extended, while Richard et al. (1985) and Caldwell et al. (1988) have classified into nuclear, stem, joint, joint-stem and others. To understand this issue further it would be necessary to understand the changes in the family structure at the macro level i. . , India over the years, which to an extent has been attempted in this paper. Objectives The specific objectives of this paper are: (i) to understand the change in family structure at two points of time i. e. , in 1981 (census) and 1992-93 (NFHS), in different states of India, (ii) to study the differentials in family structure by different socio-economic characteristics of the head of the family at the all-India level. Sources of Data The data for this paper is obtained from National Family Health Survey, which was conducted during 1992-93.The primary objective of the survey is to provide national and state-level data on different demographic and socio-economic determinants in respect of family planning, maternal and child health indicators. The survey also collected the information at three levels-Village, Household and Individual levels. The data for this paper is obtained from the Household questionnaire, which contains information, related to age, sex, martial status, education, occupation and relationship to the head of the household for all usual residents as well as for the visitors who slept last night in the house.In addition, the household questionnaire also included information on housing conditions, such as the source of water supply, type of toilet facility, land owning, type of house and various consumer durable goods and characteristics of the head of the household such as religion, caste and place of residence. A total of 88,562 households were interviewed in India over all, of which two-thirds are from rural areas. All these 88,562 households contains more than 5,50,000 persons, of which 4,99,369 are only the usual residents in the survey.Hence, for the present 2 paper the above mentioned particulars are analyzed only for the usual residents in the family. For the comparative purpose, the information on Household Structure in India pertaining to 1981 census published by the Registrar General of India is used (Chakravorty and Singh, 1991). Although the two sources of information are different i. e. , census and survey, and hence not to be compared, due to the lack of other sources of information, this attempt is undertaken.Methodology To know the distribution of family structure in India, following classifications are considered: Type of family Single Member Nuclear Broken Nuclear Supplemented Nuclear Definition The respondent who is alone This type of family includes Nuclea r pair i. e. , Head and spouse with or without unmarried children Head without spouse but with unmarried children It includes three types of families a) Supplemented Nuclear : Head and spouse with or without unmarried children but with other relations who are not currently having spouses. ) Broken Extended Nuclear : Head without spouse but with other relations of whom only one is having spouse c) Supplemented Broken Nuclear: Head without spouse with or without unmarried children but with other unmarried/separated/divorced/widowed relation It includes both lineally extended and collaterally extended families a) Lineally extended family : Head and spouse with married son(s)/daughter(s) and their spouses and parents with or without other not currently married relation(s) (OR) Head without spouse but with at least two married son(s) and daughter(s) and their spouses and/or parents with or without other not currently married relations b) Collaterally extended family : Head and spouse wit h married brother(s)/sister(s) and their spouses with or without other relation(s) [including married relation(s)] (OR) Head without spouse but with at least two married brothers/sisters and their spouses with or without other relations Joint Family 3 Source: Chakravorty, C. and A. K. Singh. , 1991, Household Structures in India, Census of India 1991, Occasional Paper No. 1, Office of the Registrar General of India, New Delhi. Although there are varying definitions for classifying family structure, the above mentioned definitions are considered in this paper mainly to have a comparison with the 1981 census.The various background characteristics considered in the analysis to describe the differentials in family type are: (1) Educational level of the head of family: (Illiterate, Literate-upto Primary, Middle complete, High school and above); (2) Place of Residence (Urban, Rural); and (3) Religion of the respondent (Hindu, Muslim and Others); (4) Caste of the respondent (Scheduled Trib e, Scheduled Caste and Others); (5) Sex of the head of family (Male, Female); (6) Landowning Status (Yes, No); (7) Age of the head of family (less than 40 years, 40-60 years and 60 and above); (8) Size of family (Small i. e. 1-3 members, Medium i. e. 4-6 members, Large i. e. 7-9 members, Very Large i. e. , 10 and above).Results The data for urban areas (Table 1) reveals that in 1992-93; almost half of the urban population in India live in nuclear families and 23 percent, 20 percent in joint family and supplemented nuclear families respectively. The percentage of single member and broken nuclear families together is only 6 percent. As compared to 1981 census, there has been a decline in the single member, broken nuclear and supplemented nuclear families in 1992-93 and the percentage of nuclear and joint families has increased over the years (Graph 1). 4 Table 1: Percentage Distribution of Different Type of Families in States/UTs of India for Urban Areas in 1981 and 1992-93 States 198 1 Census Single Broken Nuclear Suppl. Joint Membe Nuclear Nuclear family r 7. 91 4. 24 46. 77 23. 64 17. 08 5. 76 4. 42 52. 46 24. 47 12. 89 -4. 25 3. 25 4. 31 8. 53 4. 30 4. 39 6. 13 3. 8 4. 09 7. 61 7. 94 5. 41 5. 04 4. 53 3. 11 5. 40 -7. 03 3. 86 5. 27 7. 89 6. 21 6. 19 4. 93 3. 74 8. 81 7. 47 -42. 41 48. 43 49. 09 37. 35 48. 79 44. 13 42. 62 44. 91 44. 20 52. 95 43. 42 45. 46 49. 47 49. 17 43. 57 42. 09 -47. 35 47. 12 45. 52 51. 64 56. 33 49. 30 50. 15 51. 09 45. 06 20. 22 -23. 65 24. 04 20. 14 21. 45 20. 55 30. 06 32. 83 25. 08 19. 80 20. 00 31. 23 32. 52 23. 42 19. 63 24. 82 31. 99 -17. 92 20. 98 26. 44 21. 70 5. 10 21. 64 22. 00 20. 88 26. 78 53. 53 -20. 09 17. 98 18. 16 7. 94 20. 94 15. 06 14. 35 16. 81 21. 07 15. 11 5. 78 2. 60 10. 21 19. 41 19. 72 5. 60 -17. 30 20. 47 12. 94 5. 32 1. 95 8. 33 13. 46 12. 97 7. 35 5. 6 1992-93 NFHS Single Broken Nuclear Suppl. Joint Membe Nuclear Nuclear family r 3. 2 3. 3 49. 8 20. 2 23. 4 1. 5 2. 6 54. 3 20. 3 21. 3 3. 5 1. 1 5. 1 1. 5 5. 3 1. 5 2. 2 1. 5 3. 0 2. 6 1. 4 2. 0 -4. 5 1. 2 3. 6 -2. 8 3. 5 3. 2 5. 0 -7. 6 –5. 1 4. 1 -3. 9 1. 3 3. 5 2. 0 3. 5 3. 3 3. 3 4. 7 2. 7 3. 6 5. 2 3. 0 4. 8 3. 0 2. 8 2. 2 -3. 5 5. 2 3. 2 4. 0 -2. 8 –2. 4 5. 2 -43. 6 44. 3 47. 9 52. 0 56. 2 48. 1 46. 2 50. 6 45. 9 47. 2 54. 2 41. 1 75. 8 55. 0 51. 3 54. 3 -50. 8 48. 5 51. 3 40. 7 -55. 6 –50. 0 52. 3 -21. 3 18. 7 19. 0 18. 0 16. 2 18. 9 24. 8 22. 6 20. 5 20. 5 18. 8 28. 7 9. 7 20. 0 20. 3 17. 2 -25. 7 21. 4 18. 5 22. 3 -20. 1 –17. 6 21. 8 -27. 7 34. 24. 6 26. 5 18. 7 28. 1 23. 4 20. 6 27. 9 26. 1 20. 3 25. 2 9. 7 17. 5 24. 4 22. 6 -17. 2 21. 4 23. 8 28. 0 -13. 9 –24. 9 16. 6 -Total No. of cases 28747 1093 1227 1082 1359 1033 1035 987 1449 1213 1457 1753 345 202 227 1290 937 1096 -1445 229 2302 1080 -144 –3371 1827 — India Andhra Pradesh Assam -Bihar 9. 60 Gujarat 6. 30 Haryana 8. 25 Himachal 24. 73 Pradesh Jammu & 5. 14 Kashmir Karnataka 5. 74 Kerala 4. 04 Madhya 9. 54 Pradesh Maharash tra 7. 87 Manipur 4. 07 Meghalaya 11. 56 Nagaland 14. 01 Orissa 11. 76 Punjab 6. 92 Rajasthan 8. 74 Sikkim 14. 92 Tamil Nadu -Tripura 8. 00 Uttar Pradesh 7. 47 West Bengal 9. 82 Union Territories A. & N. slands 13. 45 Arunachal 24. 77 Pradesh Chandigarh 14. 54 D. & N. Haveli 9. 46 Delhi 9. 34 Goa, Daman & 11. 39 Diu Lakshadweep 12. 92 5 Mizoram 5. 64 7. 43 42. 46 36. 54 7. 93 1. 8 5. 7 49. 6 27. 5 15. 5 561 Table 2: Percentage Distribution of Different Type of Families in States/UTs of India for Rural in 1981 and 1992-93 States 1981 Census Single Broken Nuclear Suppl. Joint Membe Nuclear Nuclear family r 5. 15 4. 58 42. 79 26. 19 21. 18 5. 85 4. 88 48. 82 24. 03 16. 42 -4. 72 3. 35 4. 28 8. 35 4. 42 5. 29 7. 14 3. 67 4. 67 6. 91 10. 11 8. 84 5. 66 4. 55 3. 24 7. 94 -5. 99 4. 12 4. 17 4. 62 7. 74 3. 18 3. 75 2. 98 11. 15 -40. 73 43. 92 42. 32 33. 8 42. 11 41. 79 46. 06 37. 83 42. 64 59. 63 56. 04 59. 82 47. 56 45. 03 36. 65 48. 32 -53. 05 39. 51 49. 07 51. 21 61. 73 42. 65 48. 98 43. 13 41. 79 -25. 47 25. 92 24. 20 31. 43 24. 62 29. 92 30. 01 28. 58 19. 77 17. 30 20. 66 17. 98 24. 58 23. 80 32. 64 25. 40 -18. 55 27. 57 25. 58 19. 65 4. 06 22. 80 21. 84 23. 54 28. 42 -24. 84 21. 98 25. 79 16. 97 24. 76 17. 71 13. 36 23. 09 27. 08 13. 05 6. 68 4. 85 16. 96 22. 25 22. 41 9. 65 -16. 07 23. 29 16. 74 7. 75 9. 93 12. 24 18. 94 22. 29 8. 68 1992-93 NFHS Single Broken Nuclear Suppl. Joint Membe Nuclear Nuclear family r 2. 5 3. 2 46. 3 20. 7 27. 4 2. 3 3. 0 47. 2 22. 4 25. 1 2. 9 2. 1 3. 3 0. 9 3. 1. 2 2. 7 2. 2 2. 6 2. 5 1. 4 1. 1 0. 2 2. 9 2. 1 1. 6 -4. 2 2. 4 2. 4 1. 7 -3. 7 –13. 3 4. 7 5. 1 1. 8 2. 8 1. 7 3. 4 3. 2 3. 9 4. 8 1. 9 2. 3 6. 4 4. 2 5. 1 3. 3 2. 3 1. 5 -5. 4 4. 3 2. 2 3. 2 -3. 8 –1. 0 7. 3 49. 8 40. 6 46. 4 43. 7 44. 4 49. 9 43. 4 48. 6 41. 5 43. 1 58. 6 54. 9 73. 8 47. 7 50. 6 43. 4 -53. 6 46. 9 41. 0 48. 0 -49. 7 –49. 7 45. 9 23. 7 18. 3 19. 8 18. 4 20. 5 18. 1 24. 6 21. 9 18. 6 23. 0 16. 2 19. 3 9. 4 21. 6 18. 4 18. 6 -22. 3 26. 7 20. 4 22. 6 -19. 1 –15. 7 25. 5 18. 6 37. 1 27. 7 35. 3 28. 2 27. 6 25. 3 22. 5 35. 5 29. 1 17. 4 20. 4 11. 5 24. 6 26. 6 34. 9 -14. 5 19. 7 33. 9 22. 4 -23. 7 –20. 3 16. 6 Total No. f cases 59534 3106 2021 3627 2509 1702 2074 1850 2813 3162 4391 2306 740 788 828 3288 2276 3901 -2837 908 7738 3141 -815 –300 1888 India Andhra Pradesh Assam -Bihar 4. 24 Gujarat 4. 83 Haryana 3. 33 Himachal 9. 47 Pradesh Jammu & 3. 59 Kashmir Karnataka 5. 08 Kerala 3. 43 Madhya 6. 39 Pradesh Maharashtra 5. 80 Manipur 2. 92 Meghalaya 6. 45 Nagaland 8. 51 Orissa 4. 90 Punjab 4. 16 Rajasthan 5. 00 Sikkim 8. 69 Tamil Nadu -Tripura 4. 26 Uttar Pradesh 5. 47 West Bengal 4. 42 Union Territories A. & N. islands 16. 77 Arunachal 11. 03 Pradesh Chandigarh 19. 13 D. & N. Haveli 6. 49 Delhi 6. 40 Goa, Daman & 9. 54 Diu 6 Lakshadweep 9. 24 Mizoram 3. 60 11. 27 6. 72 17. 22 49. 85 61. 07 27. 45 1. 20 12. 38 -1. 9 -3. 2 -61. 5 -21. 7 -11. 6 -525In rural areas, while 46 percent and 27 percent of families belong to nuclear and joint types respectively in 1992-93, and the percentage of families in supplemented nuclear, broken nuclear and single member type are 21, 3 and 3 respectively. As compared to 1981 census, the pattern of change in urban areas in different family types is almost the same as in the rural areas in 1992-93 (Graph 2). As compared to urban areas, the single member households are less frequent in rural areas. It is obvious that persons who migrate to urban areas have to stay single for quite a long period of time, hence this type of families is found to be slightly more in the urban areas. In different states of India, in 1992-93, the percentage of nuclear families in the urban areas, is high in Nagaland (76 percent) and low in case of Bihar (44 percent) and Uttar Pradesh (51 percent).In the less developed states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, a high proportion of joint families could possibly indicate the traditional nature of the society and the lack of sign ificant occupational mobility found among the people of the state. In case of Nagaland, it could be that the tradition, which normally demands newly, weds to set up as a separate family and also along with the absence of large landholding result in higher proportion of nuclear families. Although, there is an increase in joint families in 1992-93 as compared to 1981, it is found to be more pronounced in urban areas than in rural areas in most of the states of India. In the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Orissa, Goa, Daman & Diu, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh, the proportion of supplemented nuclear type of families are higher than the joint type of families in 1992-93.A few plausible reasons for the same are given below: 7 (a) Migration is an important component which forces the members of the natal family to stay together usually revolving around one married couple and sharing the economic assets and income. For instance, when a person migrates for work he leaves his wife, children behind with his parents, hence in such a society the supplemented nuclear families are expected to be more. Similar is the situation, in case of a person who migrates to urban areas and is forced to stay with his relatives, due to lack of housing. (b) The increase in the socioeconomic development of the society also leads to increase in the status of women.And as the status of women in the family and in the society being high, it is expected that the chances of divorce/separation would also be high in case of marital incompatibility between the partners. This is found to be true in case of Kerala where the status of women and the divorce rates are high (Sureender et al. 1992). In this situation too, there is a possibility of the supplemented nuclear families to be more in the society. In general, there has been a decline in single member, broken nuclear and supplemented nuclear type of families, while an increase is observed in nuclear and joint families as compa red to 1981 in most of the states of India.While the decline in the proportion of single and broken nuclear families could be largely attributed to improvement in the health conditions of the population over the years, whereas the following reasons could be thought of for the increase in nuclear families. †¢ The decline in the interest of the individual towards satisfying the groups (families) interest; The problems related to housing especially in case of migrants to urban areas; The lack of adjustment between the family members especially when a bride/groom enters into the family. According to Caldwell et al. (1996), the ultimate reason for the break-up of the joint family is the friction between mother-in-law and daughter- in-law and between daughters-inlaw themselves.In the case of increasing joint families, problems related to housing could be cited as an important factor especially in urban areas, which force the couples to stay in joint families. Further, low age at marr iage among girls also force the couples to stay with the parents till they attain economic independence. This implies an addition of married women in the same family, which results in the classification of the family as a joint family. Joint family also gave security to widows, physically handicapped, economically non-productive and other insecure members †¢ †¢ 8 of the society. They were thus, the ideal type of household meeting all the requirements of society in the past (Chakravorty and Singh, 1991).According to Mandelbaum (1970), people tend to remain in joint families longer when economic factors favour such families. He also argues that the poorest and the lowest groups tend to have fewest joint families, but even at these social levels, most families become joint for at least for some time after son marries. Further it was argued that even if a whole society strives towards ideal of joint families, there will inevitably be a very considerable proportion of simpler f amilies at transitional stages in a demographic cycle because of deaths among the older generation, the departure from the joint family of surplus married brothers and other factors.Hence, even a considerable proportion of nuclear families in a population is evidence neither of change nor of the forming of that type of families. In additions to the above-mentioned ones there are obvious socioeconomic characteristics of head of the family which result in changes within the family structure. Some of these characteristics which are analysed with the family structure in this paper at the all India level are: Education, Age, Religion, Residence, Caste, Sex, Land owning status, and the size of the family. Differentials The results in Table 3 show that there is not much difference in family structure for both urban and rural areas in India as a whole.However, a considerable increase is observed in the proportion of nuclear families in urban areas compared to rural areas. This statement str engthens the hypothesis that the urban respondents are more likely to choose the nuclear family than the rural respondents. Table 3: Percentage Distribution of various type of Families According to the Background Characteristics of the head of Household (1992-93 NFHS Survey) Background Characteristics Type of Family Single Broken Member Nuclear 3. 7 1. 9 2. 0 2. 4 2. 5 1. 9 2. 9 5. 1 2. 6 1. 7 1. 1 3. 3 3. 8 3. 1 Number of househol ds 36067 24267 8562 19385 10587 10759 669635 Nuclear Suppl. Nuclear 21. 0 20. 2 21. 3 19. 7 20. 20. 3 20. 6 Joint Family 27. 6 27. 2 22. 8 23. 5 24. 7 22. 5 26. 9 Education Illiterate Literate-primary Middle Complete High School + Caste Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe Other Castes 42. 7 48. 1 52. 2 53. 3 49. 2 51. 5 46. 5 9 Religion Hindu Muslim Sikh Others Place of Residence Urban Rural Sex of the Head Male Female Land Owning Yes No Age of the Head ; 40 years 40-60 years 60 + Marital Status Married Separated Widowed Divorced Never married Family size Sma ll Medium Large Very Large 2. 9 2. 2 2. 1 2. 9 3. 2 2. 5 1. 7 11. 7 2. 0 3. 5 2. 3 2. 1 5. 0 0. 8 21. 4 12. 4 12. 9 23. 2 14. 6 —- 3. 1 2. 7 4. 7 2. 5 3. 3 3. 2 0. 8 24. 2 2. 4 4. 2. 5 4. 3 2. 5 -34. 3 27. 4 30. 4 1. 5 9. 5 2. 5 0. 8 0. 1 46. 7 47. 3 52. 9 49. 2 49. 8 46. 3 51. 1 16. 1 42. 6 52. 2 57. 7 50. 3 22. 7 55. 0 —-56. 8 59. 5 30. 6 6. 6 20. 7 20. 1 19. 9 19. 3 20. 2 20. 7 18. 7 36. 2 20. 8 20. 3 23. 7 18. 2 20. 6 15. 7 37. 9 49. 4 50. 0 59. 2 15. 5 22. 7 24. 4 9. 9 26. 6 27. 7 20. 4 26. 0 23. 4 27. 4 27. 8 11. 9 32. 2 20. 1 13. 8 25. 7 49. 3 28. 5 6. 4 10. 8 6. 7 15. 5 3. 7 15. 3 44. 2 83. 4 68948 8623 8880 1830 28747 59534 79003 9273 43720 44545 32670 37152 18459 76013 688 9261 194 2110 16596 43274 20123 8288 10 A positive association is found between education of the head of the family and family structure.When the head of the family is illiterate, only 43 percent families are nuclear, the relative percentage for the heads who are educated upto high school a nd above, is 53 percent (Graph 3). Similarly more percentage of scheduled tribes stay in nuclear families as compared to scheduled caste and other caste people, i. e. almost 52 percent of nuclear families were found in scheduled tribes compared to 49 and 46 percent in scheduled caste and other caste people. As evidenced, more proportion of low waged population are prevalent in low caste, so always the head of the family tries to push away the married children from his house to make the family with reduced burden.This could be the plausible reason why the nuclear families are more found in low castes. Srivastava and Nauriyal (1993) also noted in Uttar Pradesh that the joint family system is found to be more popular among the higher castes than the intermediate and lower castes. It is possible that, since the land holding are more among the non-scheduled caste/tribe people, they tend to stay more in joint families compared to scheduled caste/tribe people (Caldwell et al. , 1988). In a study conducted in Karnataka, Caldwell et al. (1984) show that, among those with no land at all, 71 percent are found in nuclear families; with land upto one acre, 65 percent; with land from one to four acres, 58 percent; with over four acres 46 percent.With more resources and a need for more labour, there is more point in keeping a larger family together. A study of 5,200 households throughout Karnataka state, conducted in 1975 by the Bangalore Population Centre, recorded the percentage of different types of families as follows: 57. 3% nuclear, 30. 8% stem, 4. 7% joint, and 3. 4% joint stem. The same picture is found in this study too, i. e. , those who possess land, higher percentage stay in joint families than those with no land (Graph 4). It could be that the requirement of manpower in agricultural families and the practice of property staying with the senior citizen of the family tend to keep the joint families intact. Nimkoff (1959) also writes that in India, he joint family system is traditionally most common among the elite, the higher castes and those with more property. It is often held that joint families are especially appropriate for peasants who cultivate land, that such families, especially those who till their own land, favour large families and favour joint families, because the excess numbers form labour pools (Kolenda Pautine et al. , 1987). The sex of head of the family is having a significant relation in forming a particular type of the family. While 51 percent of the male headed families are found to be nuclear type and only 16 percent of nuclear families have female as head of the family. However, the picture is found different in case of the supplemented nuclear and broken nuclear families.Female-headed families are found to be more in supplemented nuclear and broken nuclear family types. While, migration of males in search of jobs could be one of the reasons which forces the females to head the supplemented nuclear families, the death of the 11 husband and to an extent the increasing divorce rate (especially in urban areas) could be some of the plausible reasons in case of more females heading the broken nuclear families. Religious differentials clearly indicate that more percentage of Sikhs (53 percent) are living in nuclear families compared to all other religions (i. e. , 46. 7, 47. 3 and 49 percent from Hindu, Muslim and other religions respectively).It has been observed in the analysis that the proportion of illiterate heads of the family in Sikh religion is considerably less as compared to the other religions. Also, it was supported that the education of the head of the family has a positive association with family structure as the education increases, the proportion of nuclear families increase. Hence, it could be one of the plausible reasons; the nuclear families are more in Sikh religion. Though, it has been found in the analysis that in India as a whole, the proportion of nuclear families are more in S ikh religion compared to other religious groups. Independently, in Punjab and Haryana the proportion of Sikh religion is more, but it comprises only 25 percent of India's Sikh population.Our results support the contention of Kingsley Davis; â€Å"Sikhs took more seriously to education, as they are more literate than either the Hindus or the Muslims. Their high percentage in the Indian army has doubtless helped their literacy†. Also a district wise analysis of selected states in India by Kolenda Pauline et al. (1987) reveals that high joint family districts have more Hindus and substantially fewer Christians than the low joint family districts. These figures according to the authors suggest that Hindus have a preference for joint family living compared to other religions. As expected, age of the head of family is having a significant association with family structure.Joint families are found to be more among the older ones where the age of the head of family is over 60 years ( 49. 3 percent). While only 25. 7 percent of the middle aged beads maintain joint families, and the corresponding percentage among younger ones is 14. It is 12 felt that, always the old persons prefer to maintain their family as joint type, because to fulfil their psychological satisfaction through the youngest in the family. This finding is found to be similar to an earlier study conducted by Driver (1962) in Nagpur district of Maharashtra. A study by Morrison (1959) reveals that nuclear families are generally small and medium in size, whereas joint families are large and very large.It is equally obvious that there is considerable overlapping in the medium and large size categories so that it is not possible to say that medium sized families are always nuclear and large sized are always joint in composition. Similar type of results were noticed in this study too, that, nuclear families are generally small and medium in size and joint families are large and very large in size. To be precise, while percentage of small and medium size in nuclear families are 56. 8 and 59. 5 respectively and among the joint families are 3. 7 and 15. 3 respectively. On the other hand, the percentage of large and very large size families in nuclear type are 30. 6 and 6. 6 percent respectively as compared to 44. 2 and 83. 4 among joint families.These results clearly show that broken nuclear families and nuclear families are usually small and medium in size, whereas joint families are large in family size. Conclusion Keeping in view that the changes in family structure are inevitable partly as a result of continuing demographic change, this paper examines the changes in family structure from 1981 to 1992-93 in India. The results reveal that over the years, there has been an increase in the nuclear and joint families, although nuclear families are leading in both the rural and urban areas. On the other hand, a decline is observed in the single member, broken nuclear and supplemented nu clear families. Nuclear families are found to be more in case of Nagaland as compared to rest of the states of India.The differentials in family structure reveals that the socio-economic background of the head of the family has a definite role to play in the growth of nuclear families in India. These changes in the family structure calls for the examination of its plausible consequences on the attitude and behaviour of the family members at the micro level. References 1. Agarwala, B. R. , 1962, Nature and extent of social change in a mobile commercial community. Sociological Bulletin, 11. 2. Beteille, A. , 1964. Family and social change in India and other South Asian Countries. Economic and Political Weekly, Annual. XVI: 237-244. 13 3. Caldwell, J. C. ; Reddy, P. H. and Caldwell, Pat. , 1984.The determinants of family structure in Rural South India. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46 (1): 215-230. 4. Caldwell, J. C. ; Reddy, P. H. and Caldwell, Pat. , 1988. 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