Managing People & Performance Essay

This assignment seeks to holistically analyse the critical â€Å"people issues† which impact the effective performance of a Maltese sea passenger and vehicle service company, namely Gozo Channel Company Limited. The main area of concern has been highlighted to be emanating through lack of strategic approach within Gozo Channel’s HRM, more so there is no alignment between the company’s business strategy and HR strategy. Throughout, this document will seek new recommendations through various business methodologies on how to overcome the barriers and issues which are affecting people’s performance. The first part of this document explains what are the reasons which ultimately affect the performance of Gozo Channel’s employees and review of both the external and internal context are explored, thus identifying what the critical issues are. Part two of this document sets out the action plan of what is required to overcome such barriers and using different models acquired and researched from the Managing People and Performance module, a detailed plan is set up to tackle each and every area effecting the performance of employees. The elective pathway throughout this assignment is focused on High Performing Teams and one major factor being proposed with justification is motivation. The conclusive reflection concentrates on achieving a sense of â€Å"evolution† not a sense of â€Å"revolution† within Gozo Channel, in terms of a sound recruitment strategy, training and development. 1.INTRODUCTION Gozo Channel Company Limited is a government entity which for over thirty years has been providing sea ferry-transport for both vehicles and passengers between the island of Gozo and the main island of Malta. Although it operates the life-link between the two islands in a monopolistic environment, meaning without direct competition, in 2004 the government had to issue a call for a Public Service Obligation , according to the European Union transportation law, which basically â€Å"†¦is an arrangement in which a governing body or other authority offers an auction for subsidies, permit the winning company a monopoly to operate a specified service of public transport for a specified period of time for the given subsidy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Wikipedia, 2009) 1.1.THE IMPACT OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE OBLIGATION ON GOZO CHANNEL’S HR OBJECTIVES Initially in 2004, the transport authority awarded a 6 year PSO contract to GC on the basis of its provisions, resources and standards (fleet, human resources, experience and infrastructure). At that time the company was awarded an annual subsidy of approximately â‚ ¬ 4 million. This â€Å"subsidy† as well as the revenue generated along with the various cost cutting exercises, resulted in recurrent annual profits, which in effect meant that the company seemed to be on the right track. In 2010 though, the PSO contract attracted a host of companies and consortiums, all of whom were all eyeing the Malta – Gozo sea-ferry transport service. This situation was seen as a major threat and created an aura of uncertainty among company employees, causing all sorts of speculation. It was the first time that the company had to compete for its â€Å"bread and butter† and speculative pressures forced GC in submitting an annual offer of approximately â‚ ¬ 800k to ensure continuity. This drastic decrease in subsidy requires a holistic review in GC’s business strategy but more importantly the HR strategy has to be properly aligned to meet its objectives. 1.2.MY ROLE WITHIN THE COMPANY As Human Resources and ICT Manager, analysing both the external and internal context of GC is vital to ensure the correct review of its current processes, policies and human resource capital. My role is to ensure that the HR strategy is parallel with the company’s business strategy and more importantly ensure that all employees are nurtured, motivated and trained to support such strategy, thus ensuring that GC move forward in one strategic direction. 2.CRITICAL ISSUE 2.1.INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FACTORS OF THE CRITICAL ISSUE Being a government entity the company has to deal with multiple socio-political pressures, especially in light that GC offers a life-link for the island of Gozo. In a nutshell the island of Gozo depends on GC and to a certain extent one can argue that without a permanent link, GC is practically the road which ensures intra-connectivity between the two islands. Having said that and in light of the new financial realities which the company is facing as mentioned in paragraph 1.1, I have to evaluate both the external and internal context to better understand the forces sustaining the critical issue. 2.1.1.EXTERNAL POLITICAL FACTORS GC’s board of directors are all political appointees and their strategy and vision is determined by the government in administration. Bearing in mind that each administration normally enjoys a term of 5 years, the business strategy varies every time which in essence deters continuity. 2.1.2.INTERNAL POLITICAL FACTORS Moreover the majority of GC’s employees have been politically â€Å"hand-picked†, meaning they were not employed on the basis of skill and/or merit but on merely nepotism. These two factors form an integral part of the company’s critical issue and though they are based on different levels of the company’s structural hierarchy, the source is the same i.e. Political. 2.1.3.EXTERNAL ECONOMIC FACTORS GC currently has 214 employees, of which approximately 80% reside on the island of Gozo and since its inception GC has been always regarded as a leading employer, providing the ever needed employment boost to Gozitans . According to the latest statistical data gathered from the National Statistics Office (May 2013); Gozo has a rate of 10.6% of the overall registered unemployed and with limited employment opportunities in Gozo, many Gozitans seek employment alternatives in Malta. Being a government entity also means that the trade unions have their fair share of influence on the external economic context in terms of collective bargaining and legislation, such as Family Friendly Measures , COLA etc. 2.1.4.INTERNAL CULTURAL FACTOR One of Malta’s leading trade unions, namely Union Haddiema Maghqudin enjoys the 50+1% of the GC’s employee membership; thus is currently the main recognised trade union representing the employees in three sections namely, Seaborne Officers, General Staff and Line Managers. GC together with UHM negotiates collective agreements which stipulate policies, procedural systems and regulate grades and pay structures. This stringent and rigid systematic approach intertwined with a unionised culture, with a strong â€Å"job for life† mentality spreading from top to bottom, restricts the change management concept of the company. This is further attested through the low employee turnover within GC, which is practically zero and only attributable to natural wastage . 2.1.5.TECHNOLOGY FACTOR Today’s market offers an array of Human Resources Management Systems which are systems and processes that intersect HRM and Information Technology. Although GC has invested in HRMS comprising of the following two packages; payroll, time and attendance, there is lack of a proper Human Resources package that allows ease of access for performance appraisals, benefits administration, recruiting and learning management, performance records, scheduling, absence management and analytics. 2.2.HUMAN RESOURCES FUNCTION WITHIN GOZO CHANNEL Coupled with the main factors mentioned above, GC’s HR has a specialist approach leaning towards a â€Å"Personnel† role rather than that of the more dynamic and strategic role of HRM . Guest (1987) identifies the differences between Personnel and HRM as shown in Table 1 below. PersonnelHRM Time and planningShort-term, reactive ad hoc marginalLong-term, proactive, strategic, integrated Psychological contract ComplianceCommitment Control SystemsExternalSelf-control Employee RelationsPluralist, collective, low trustUnitarist, individual, high trust Structures and systemsBureaucratic/mechanistic, centralised, formalOrganic, devolved, flexible RolesSpecialist/professionalLargely integrated into line management Evaluation criteriaCost minimisationMaximum utilisation (human asset accounting) Table 1 – The differences between personnel and human resource management The traits listed by Guest (1987) under Personnel, are parallel to GC’s HR functions and the drawbacks are further highlighted in Gratton and Truss (2003) three-dimensional people strategy model whereby GC’s position is weak both in the vertical and horizontal alignment. Figure 1 – Gratton & Truss (2003): The three-dimensional people strategy The HR department has no influence on GC’s strategy and the functions are merely day-to-day administrative matters relating to staff driven by rigid procedures which have little discernible relationship with today’s realities; hence the alignment in the â€Å"mere tactics speak† position in the Gratton & Truss (2003) three-dimensional people strategy model as depicted figure 1. 2.3.MANAGEMENT AND COMPANY STRUCTURE This lack of strategic approach is further compounded by the fact that GC has no Chief Executive. Furthermore there is lack of leadership throughout the management team and people management seems to be focused on the HR department only, rather than integrated throughout the entire management structure. 2.3.1.STRUCTURE The company is currently driven by 4 department heads namely, Operations, Commercial, Human Resources and Finance, and although the structure is flat and ideal, there is lack of cohesion between them and each department is individually driven towards its own goals. 2.3.2.MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY Sumantra Goshal (2004) refers to the downfall of Enron and explains how Andrew Fatsow’s (former Chief Finance Officer of Enron) â€Å"†¦designed Enron’s management system around a firm faith that employees pursued only their own self-interest†¦Ã¢â‚¬  quoting Fatsow’s philosophy that â€Å"You must allow people to eat what they hunt†¦only then will they hunt well†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Although the context of Enron is not related to GC’s context, it does show that when you ignore the company’s goals and pursue individualistic targets; the results lead to disastrous consequences. 2.3.3.PEOPLE MANAGEMENT Lack of leadership and people management is down to the fact that Line Managers tend to shirk such responsibility, but more so the main factor is lack of ability, hence the staffing issue mentioned in paragraph 2.1.2. 2.4.POLICIES & PROCEDURES GC has an SMS manual containing specific management procedures ranging from safety and environmental policies to people management policies. This manual is inclined to seaborne staff and the systems and procedures are rhetoric and â€Å"institutional† rather than practical. This goes to show that there is lack of communication between GC’s management and critical feedback, which is brought up during internal audits, management reviews, accident reports, etc., is not discussed and analysed correctly. Therefore the planning and implementation process of the ISM cycle is not maintained which eventually is why we are faced with such a situation whereby procedures are not in tune with the current requirements and realities. 2.5.TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT GC has no appraisal and evaluation system in place apart from stringent procedures for seaborne personnel, in line with the required standards of the maritime legislation. Therefore there is no manpower flow and no training strategy, albeit the occasional course organised ad hoc or as required. 2.6.COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS The downward process is non-existent and as highlighted management has no focal point in which all downward processes are channelled through. This is also coupled by the fact that lateral communication between management is also obscured by inter-personal conflicts. These conflicts are down to various reasons, such as lack of motivation, internal politics, greed, and selfishness, but the main factor is that management has no cohesion and everyone works within his own â€Å"castle† rather than in teams – a scenario where no one seems to share information. 3.ACTION AND IMPLEMENTATION PLAN Having analysed the critical issue in the first part of this document, the tasks ahead have been clearly defined. I have set out a plan to change the mind-set of the current HRM system. This plan tackles 4 critical areas which are highlighted further on in section 3. The table below illustrates GC’s action plan showing the timescales for the implementation of each critical area. Critical IssueTime Frame PlanImplementationReview 3.1 – HRM StrategyBeginning of 1st QuarterEnd of 1st QuarterYearly 3.2 – HR Function and People ManagementBeginning of 2nd QuarterEnd of 2nd QuarterContinuous 3.3 – Enhancing the Performance of Human CapitalBeginning of 2nd QuarterEnd of 2nd QuarterContinuous 3.4 – Measuring & Validating The PerformanceBeginning of 2nd QuarterPeriodically as required Table 2 – GC’s Action Plan 3.1.HRM STRATEGY TYPE It is noticeable that GC’s HR strategy is not aligned with its Business strategy not to mention that the latter is in essence unclear due to the volatile state of the political implications as mentioned in section 2. Thus initially, the first action is to identify a clear vision to implement organisational goals. The â€Å"Line of Sight† model adapted from Higgs, in Rees & McBain (2004) ensures that GC’s business strategy is aligned with its people management policies and practices. On the basis of the issues mentioned in section 2, GC requires three types of HR strategies as defined by Higgs,M (2004); cost strategy, capability strategy and commitment strategy. Figure 2 – The line of sight model 3.1.1.COST STRATEGY As a result of the new PSO, GC has to ensure that part of the business and HR strategy has to focus on high revenue generation with the least possible level of man power cost. 3.1.2.CAPABILITY STRATEGY Parallel to this, GC has to also be strategically aligned to ensure that employees are nurtured, trained and motivated to cater for future capability demands. 3.1.3.COMMITMENT STRATEGY Together with the cost and capability strategies the company must also ensure that employees are committed towards the company’s strategy and goals. 3.2.HR FUNCTION AND PEOPLE MANAGEMENT Implementing the above three strategies requires changing the mind-set of the HR function from a specialist role to a strategic role. It is essential that all Heads of Department, Line Managers and Masters are fully responsible for people management and share this responsibility. This way a greater emphasis will be put on these roles to become the implementers of the HR policies and thus it is imperative to also improve communication between departments through shared responsibility and better knowledge of what is happening. Furthermore this gives an opportunity for all involved to be accountable for any actions taken, thus taking ownership of their problems, bring them closer to employees by helping them better understand the pressures they are facing, gives them a sense of empowerment and helps them to improve as managers by understanding better the processes and their position within GC. In order to implement this change in the management’s work ethic, it is essential that all those involved in managing people undergo training in the EIRA legislation, leadership skills and more importantly making them aware of GC’s policies, regulations and processes. 3.3.ENHANCING THE PERFORMANCE OF HUMAN CAPITAL Gratton & Ghosal (2003) define human capital as â€Å"†¦an umbrella term comprising the intellectual, emotional and social capital of individuals and organisations†¦Ã¢â‚¬  GC’s bottom line employees lack motivation, drive and in some cases ability which in hindsight is attributable to the fact of a futile recruitment system mired further by political intrusion. Effectively GC’s HRM should aim at developing its human capital and at the same time enhance their performance to a high level of output. â€Å"The Bath people and performance† model by Purcell et al (2003) is the perfect model to adapt in order to achieve High Performance from employees. Utilising the best abilities and skills of each employee as well as motivating them through various incentives such as pay incentives, promotions & training and also by giving employees an opportunity to participate through feedback will aptly help motivate staff. Moreover it is essential that employees are managed, encouraged, respected and trusted. On the basis of this model GC’s HRM has to take a pro-active approach from the entry level of each individual and form a process based on a risk-based approach to examine historical events and future plans. The guidelines for such action should be based on cycle as shown below in figure 4. This way each individual employee will be monitored in an effective way and trained according to his/her competence needs, therefore training is vital for humans, to develop ability, to perform procedures, to operate systems. Figure 3 – The Bath people and performance model Figure 4 – GC’s HRM Guide for Action for Human Capital 3.3.1.EFFECTIVE RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION It is essential that GC has a proper recruitment and selection policy in place which works independently and â€Å"politically free† from external or internal interference. Jackson and Schuler (2000) define the terms â€Å"recruitment† and â€Å"selection† as â€Å"†¦Recruitment involves searching and obtaining qualified job candidates in such numbers that the organisation can select the most appropriate person to fill its need†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"†¦Selection is the process of obtaining and using information about job applicants in order to determine who should be hired for long-or short-term position†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Thus the selection board has to be fully knowledgeable and must have a clear path of the tasks, abilities and qualifications required for the relevant job so as to ensure that the right person/s has been selected. The model shown in figure 5 adapted from Briscoe (1995) identifies all the stages required to have an effective recruitment & selection policy in place. For starters, GC’s HR has to â€Å"asses the need for the job† through effective planning tools. A model which aptly covers such area is â€Å"The process of Human Resource Planning† by Armstrong (2006) shown in figure 6 below. This model identifies four key stages; business strategic plan, resourcing strategy, demand or supply forecasting and human resources plans, which in effect knits the action and implementation plan of this document leading to the four critical issues of HR resourcing, retention, flexibility and productivity. Figure 5 – Recruitment and selection process adapted from Briscoe (1995) Figure 6 – The process of human resource planning 3.3.2.TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Mabey and Salaman (1995) effectively links both the Business and HR Strategy to Training and Development arguing that â€Å"†¦unless attention is paid to all six dimensions shown in the figure, then the quality of training and development will be impaired and their business impact will be flawed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In essence this is another vital step to ensure that the HR strategy is aligned with the Business strategy thus developing human capital to attain high performance. The performance evaluation process of employees is not intended to castigate people but should effectively help the development process. Therefore effective appraisals and psychometric tests coupled by constant monitoring, would greatly assist the HR department in understanding individual training needs and requirements, as well as keeping in line with the company’s strategic training and development plan. A clear example of the lack of strategic human resource planning within GC is experienced in the marine engineering section. 3.3.2.1.MARINE ENGINEERS Malta currently lacks human resources in the marine engineering sector, which has been in decline over a number of years mainly through lack of interest from students to pursue such a career. This was further tarnished by the fact that the maritime authority failed to endorse the Higher National Diploma in Marine Engineering course and thus the few students who had applied for such course were forced to change career direction. Whereas currently GC’s position has been as a mere spectator over such issue, this calls for a more pro-active approach by highlighting such awareness with the authorities concerned and by ensuring that the maritime authority and MCAST provide endorsed courses, opportunities for sea time to students and more importantly courses are sustained. Moreover GC has to be directly involved in promoting the marine engineering career in schools and career expos, thus investing in the future of human capital – becoming an employer of choice. Figure 7 – Mabey and Salaman strategic training and development model 3.3.3.PERFORMANCE MANGEMENT AND REWARD SYSTEMS GC has to adopt a more business based approach to HRM and should include reward systems. Armstrong (2000) describes performance management as a â€Å"cycle† as shown in figure 8 below. It defines a clear plan of how to manage performance in four stages; plan, act, monitor and review. The monitor and review stages are intertwined with the training and development performance evaluation process. This cycle starts by planning and agreeing a set of targets with an employee, whereby it is fundamental to maintain the performance agreement realistically and it should include â€Å"team-based† bonus elements rather than a high level of â€Å"individual† performance to avoid having a â€Å"silo mentality† Higgs, in Rees & McBain (2004). Figure 8 – The phases of performance management The model below shown in figure 9 below, further explains Armstrong’s performance management system. Figure 9 – Phases of a performance management system 3.3.4.EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION A key element in achieving high morale of employees, job satisfaction, low absenteeism, enhanced productivity and high performance is down to motivation. Maslow (1954) identified a hierarchy of needs as shown in figure 10 below; which ranges from physiological needs, safety, love, esteem and self actualisation. Figure 10 – Maslow’s Pyramid Porter et al (2003) link these needs to general rewards and organisational factors as shown below in table 3. This table more importantly identifies the organisational factors for each level of Maslow’s pyramid. Although Maslow’s theory defines satisfaction as the main contributor to motivation it does not guarantee high work performance. This theory though does form an integral part to attain a motivated work force and further facilitates to understand better what factors are effecting individual employees. This theory therefore has helped me clearly define another important issue which effects performance management within GC – equity and fairness. 3.3.4.1.ENSURING EQUITY AND FAIRNESS Having the characteristics of a government entity, lack of motivation within GC is commonly effected through lack of equity between staff; in other words employees tend to become de-motivated when they feel that they are not rewarded for their work, efforts or perhaps even for the reason that they are rewarded on the same level as others who work far less than them. Adams (1965) Equity Theory tries to find the correct balance between the â€Å"inputs† and â€Å"outputs† of an employee. In other terms it defines the â€Å"fair balance† to ensure high performance as well as content and motivated employees. According to this theory Adams (1965) identifies what are the typical â€Å"inputs† and â€Å"outputs† of each individual and thus helping to identify the balance or imbalance which currently exist in GC. Such â€Å"inputs† include; effort, loyalty, hard work, commitment, skill, ability, adaptability, flexibility, tolerance, determination, enthusiasm, trusts in superiors, support of colleagues, and personal sacrifice while the â€Å"outputs† are mainly; financial rewards (such as salary, benefits, perks), recognition, reputation, responsibility, sense of achievement, praise, stimulus, sense of advancement/growth, and job security. A similar theory but has a greater impetus on motivational impact is the Herzberg et al (1959) Two-factor Theory. Frederick Herzberg identifies two factors which he calls â€Å"Hygiene† (factors of dissatisfaction) and â€Å"Motivation† (factors of satisfaction) and claims that unless you eliminate the employee’s dissatisfaction/s and moreover help him overcome such dissatisfaction/s; you can never motivate the employee. Although this theory could transmit effective motivation on an individual context, it could backfire unless â€Å"Hygiene† factors are tackled fairly, with equity and consistently. For example if an employee is dissatisfied on the basis of working as a Mooring Man , one can assume that by changing his grade; motivation will be achieved. Overall though such decision could create an aura of unrest between groups of staff who would view such judgment as unfair and thus pretend similar treatment in their regard, notwithstanding the fact that collective agreements would not allow such practise and in reality high performing teams can never be achieved through such methods. 3.4.MEASURING & VALIDATING THE PERFORMANCE Parallel to implementing the above recommendations, GC’s HR must ensure that management systems are in place to validate and measure the performance of such recommendations. 3.4.1.BALANCE SCORECARD In order to maintain constant focus to ensure that GC’s business activities are aligned to its vision and strategy, an ideal strategic system is the Balance Scorecard Kaplan R S and Norton D P (1992). This model will assist GC’s management to asses the performance of the organisation while also helps identify what should be measured. Kaplan and Norton describe the balance scorecard as â€Å"†¦The balanced scorecard retains traditional financial measures. But financial measures tell the story of past events, an adequate story for industrial age companies for which investments in long-term capabilities and customer relationships were not critical for success. These financial measures are inadequate, however, for guiding and evaluating the journey that information age companies must make to create future value through investment in customers, suppliers, employees, processes, technology, and innovation†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The balance scorecard is also an idealistic strategic tool for GC since the company has an important role as mentioned earlier, therefore the vision and strategy should be intertwined with the four core areas, namely Financial, Internal Business, Innovation & Learning, and Customer.    3.4.2.KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS The Balance Scorecard Kaplan R S and Norton D P (1992) will also enable GC’s HRM to develop its KPI. For example absenteeism can be strategically measured to evaluate to what extent this problem is within GC. In hindsight anything can be measured through KPI and GC’s management has to be intrinsically focused on measuring performance on the basis of directional, financial, qualitative, and quantitative characteristics. 3.4.3.MANAGEMENT REVIEWS GC’s management must review, analyse and discuss the performance of each department to ensure that policies and procedures are effective and not defective towards the performance of the company. The review process is intended to highlight any deficiencies which had been spotted either through KPI, incident reports, customer feedback and employee feedback. Moreover processes may be amended to incorporate new legislation and perhaps to evaluate whether the company has adequate resources. A clear example within GC is the new STCW 2010 legislation amendments which will effect GC from two different angles, namely human resource competencies in terms of certification and adequate resources to provide proper hours of rest periods to employees. 4.HIGH PERFORMING TEAM (ELECTIVE PATHWAY) In today’s ever demanding world of technological advancements and competition every company has to ensure that each individual employee must be motivated and managed appropriately to achieve a high output of performance. As clearly defined in section 3 of this assignment the following characteristics are vital to reach a level of having high performing teams within GC. The key characteristics to achieve high performing teams are: participative leadership by involving and engaging employees, effective decision-making, open and clear communication thus ensuring that employees use effective communication methods and channels, valued diversity in terms of valuing the different experiences and backgrounds in teams which contribute to a diversity of viewpoints thus leading to better decision making and solutions, mutual trust, managing conflict by dealing with conflict openly and transparently and not allowing grudges to build up and destroy team morale, clear goals developed by SMART criteria, defined roles and responsibilities, team building events to promote bonds between employees, and a positive atmosphere with an open culture which is focused on future goals. 5.REFLECTION This assignment and module has effectively allowed me to understand better what the critical issue is. It allowed me to recognise the negative effects of having a non-strategically HRM system coupled by external and internal political interference, which in essence renders the company’s strategic vision as a volatile state of mishmash. The â€Å"empowerment† given to me through this assignment to write down specific grievances which I have personally experienced through my current role as Human Resources and ICT Manager has enabled me to dig deep within GC. For starters my appreciation of the â€Å"human element† within GC has helped me explain why motivation through fairness and equity is vital in order to achieve a high performing team, something which is currently lacking due to the political cloud hovering over GC. Moreover it is essential that there is a strategy of â€Å"evolution† and not a strategy of â€Å"revolution† with GC. The positive effects that a proper recruitment system yields helps achieve results but through this module I realised the importance of training and development which are vital to augment the knowledge and competencies of GC’s human capital, helping themb to work towards achieving GC’s goals and objectives while at the same time safeguarding GC’s future planning. Overall the importance of aligning GC’s HRM to its business strategy is critical to achieve the correct synergy to implement all the processes mentioned in section 3 of this assignment. Consequently the action plan mentioned in section 3 has to be strictly adhered to, in order to change GC’s direction which is slowly destroying its â€Å"livelihood† as well as the â€Å"livelihood† of its employees. This statement further motivates me to push for the changes required by becoming a catalyst of this change in management strategy and as a result achieve the goals required to overcome any risks which eventually will effect GC employees and the Island of Gozo. 6.REFERENCES Armstrong, M (2000) Performance Management: Key Strategies and Practical Guidelines. Kogan Page cited in Henley Business School, MPP Core Module Notes Adams (1965) Equity Theory: Henley Business School, MPP Core Module Notes, pp96 and further cited: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_96.htm Briscoe, D.R (1995) International Human Resources Management. Prentice Hall Guest, D.E. (1987) Human resource management and industrial relations, Journal of Management Studies 24(5), pp. 503-521 Gratton, L & Truss, C (2003) The three-dimensional people strategy: putting human resources strategies into action. Academy of Management Executive, 17(3), pp. 74-86 Gratton, L & Ghoshal, S (2003) Managing personal human capital: new ethos for the ‘volunteer employee’. European Management Journal, 21(1), pp. 1-10 Ghoshal, S (2004), People Management, 12 February 2004, p.23 Higgs, M (2004) Future trends in HR. In: R McBain & D Rees (eds) People Management: Challenges and Opportunities. Palgrave Macmillan, Chapter 2 Herzberg et al (1959) Two-Factor Theory: Henley Business School, MPP Core Module Notes, pp93 and further cited: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_74.htm Jackson, S.E & Schuler, R.S (2000) Managing Human Resources: a Partnership Perspective. Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing Kaplan, R.S and Norton, D.P (1992) â€Å"The Balanced Scorecard: measures that drive performance†, Harvard Business Review Jan – Feb pp. 71–80 Kaplan, R.S and Norton, D.P (1996) â€Å"Using the Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic Management System,† Harvard Business Review (January-February 1996): pp. 76 Labour Force Survey 2013 Q1 http://www.nso.gov.mt/statdoc/document_file.aspx?id=3627 Mabey, C., and Salaman, G (1995) Strategic Training and Development Model: cited in Henley Business School, Blackboard Learn, MPP Module & Key Resources Maslow, A (1954) Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper Row: cited in Henley Business School, MPP Core Module Notes, p92 NSO Register Unemployed http://www.nso.gov.mt/statdoc/document_file.aspx?id=3631 Porter, LW, Bigley, GA & Steers, RM (2003) Motivation and Work Behaviour, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin: cited in Henley Business School, MPP Core Module Notes, p93 PSO definition – Wikipedia 2009 cited: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_service_obligation Purcell, J, Kinnie, N, Hutchinson, S, Rayton, B & Swart, J (2003) Understanding the People and Performance Link: Unlocking the Black Box. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development

Oh captain my captain Essay

â€Å"O Captain! My Captain!† is a poem written by Walt Whitman in 1865. The poem is classified as an elegy because it is a mourning poem that was written in the memory of someone. The poem was written to honor Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States. Walt Whitman was born in 1819 and died in 1892, so he lived through the American Civil War. Being born close to the founding of the country, he knew people that were a part of the American Revolution. Through this he experienced the unification and division of the United States. Walt Whitman was extremely patriotic and wrote many poems about the prominence of America. He also wrote poems about urging people to fight for what is right. The poem was known as one of the greatest poems written at the time of the Civil War. The main political and social issue during Whitman’s time was slavery and the rights of African Americans. Whitman was self-described as the poet of America and, during the Civil War, the Un ion. Whitman wanted to see the end of slavery; this was his hope for America. However, it broke his heart to see the nation fighting. He admired Abraham Lincoln immensely because of his political standpoint of universal equality as stated in the constitution. The captain in the poem refers to Abraham Lincoln who is the captain of the ship; this represents the United States of America. The first line establishes a happy mood as it addresses the captain. The phrase â€Å"our fearful trip is done† is talking about the end of the Civil War. The next line references the ship, America, and how it has â€Å"weathered every rack†, meaning America has braved the tough storm of the Civil War, and â€Å"the prize we sought†, the end of slavery, â€Å"is won†. The following line expresses a mood of jubilation of the Union winning the war as it says â€Å"the people all exulting†; however, the next line swiftly shifts the mood when it talks of the grimness of the ship, and the darker side of the war. Many lost their lives in the American Civil War, and although the prize that was sought was won, the hearts still ache amidst the exultation of the people. The repetition of heart in line five calls attention to the poet’s vast grief and heartache because the Captain has bled and lies still, cold, and dead (lines six through eight). This is no doubt referencing the assassination of Abraham Lincoln and Whitman’s sorrow for the death of his idol. In the second stanza the speaker again calls out to the Captain in a light-hearted manner and dictates to â€Å"rise up and hear the bells†, to join in on the celebration of the end of the war. The next three lines tell the  captain to â€Å"rise up† and join in on the revelries because it is for him. He is the reason for their merriment: â€Å"for you the flag is flung—for you the bugle trills; for you bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths—for you the shores a-crowding; for you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning†. Everyone is celebrating what Lincoln accomplished; this is not only the abolishment of slavery but also the format ion of the Union and the coming together of people. Again the poet calls to the Captain as if he had never fallen. The poet does not wish to acknowledge the death of his beloved Captain, and he even asks if it is some dream (line 15) that the Captain has fallen â€Å"cold and dead†. The third stanza begins in a somber mood as the poet has finally accepted that the Captain is dead and gone. Here there is vivid and darker imagery such as â€Å"his lips are pale and still† and the reader can picture the dead Captain lying there still and motionless with â€Å"no pulse nor will†. In line 17, the poet calls out â€Å"My Captain,† and in line 18, the poet refers to the Captain as â€Å"My father†. This is referring to Lincoln as the father of the United States. Lines 19 and 20 are concluding statements that summarize the entire poem. The United States is â€Å"anchor’d safe and sound†. It is safe now from war with â€Å"its voyage closed and done, from fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won†. The country has accomplished its goal of the abolishment of slavery and the unification of people after a fearful war. In line 21, the examples of apostrophe, ordering â€Å"shores to exult,† and â€Å"bells to ring† are again referring to how the nation is celebrating while â€Å"I with mournful tread, Walk the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead†. Throughout the paper there is a distinct rhyme scheme, which is unusual for Whitman. The rhyme scheme in â€Å"O Captain! My Captain!† is AABCDEFE, GGHIJEKE, and LLMNOEPE for each stanza respectively. Two examples of alliteration are in line 10 â€Å"flag is flung†, as well as in line 19 â€Å"safe and sound†. Repetition occurs many times in this poem, for example â€Å"O Captain! My Captain†, and â€Å"fallen cold and dead†.

Fifth Amendment

The Fifth Amendment dates back to the 17th century, in England. They used it to protect their citizens. It was designed to protect us just like it protected the people in England. It protects us against government authority in a legal procedure.Amendment 5 states, â€Å"No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be completed in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.Question #1 What specific constituencies supported the provisions of this amendment at the time of the Constitutional Convention? Who wer e they and why did they support it? The Federalists (James Madison) introduced and supported the provisions of the 5th amendment. Madison included a constitutional provision that an individual shall not â€Å"be compelled to be a witness against himself. † Congress added the words â€Å"in any criminal case†, meaning that the provision, which will become one of the Fifth Amendment’s clauses providing safeguards against abuse of criminal laws.Because the idea that double jeopardy was wrong was so widely upheld by the colonists, James Madison also presented the Double Jeopardy Clause to Congress. Question #2 Were there any groups or persons that were against the inclusion of this amendment (or any part of it)? Who were they and why did they not support it? There were not any groups or persons that were against the inclusion of the 5th Amendment at the time of the Constitutional Convention. Question #3 Were there any changes or modifications proposed that were not included in the amendment? Who or what constituencies supported or opposed the proposed changes?Why? Many representatives rose to argue that Madison’s wording of the Double Jeopardy Clause was not strong enough. Madison had worded his Double Jeopardy Clause like this, â€Å"No subject shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or trial for the same offense. † Some representatives argued that the phrase â€Å"or trial† would prevent people from receiving a retrial if they had convicted improperly in their first trial. Eventually the phrase was left out, and the Congress and the States voted to make the Fifth Amendment Double Jeopardy Clause, as we know it, law.Question #4 What (if any) were the historical causes for this amendment to be important enough to be included in the original Bill of Rights? The Fifth Amendment states that â€Å"No person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself. † This right was created in reaction to the British courts of equity in 1487. These courts were truth-seekers. The prosecutors did not have to prove the case instead they got proof from confessions out of the accused. The accused were required to answer any questions from the prosecutors at any time.The common law courts of England adopted the principle of nemo tenetur – that no man should be bound to accuse himself. The right to be free from self-incrimination was established in common law throughout most of the colonies before it appeared in the US constitution. Question #5 Have there been any attempts to change or repeal this amendment through the years? When and by whom? Who or what constituencies supported or opposed the changes or attempts at repeal? Why? SOURCE 1 (http:/www. enotes. com/american-court-case) The 1887 Act of Congress allowed the government to compel an individual to testify against himself.Counselman vs. Hitchcock 1882. In 1891 Charles Counselman, a grain businessman was brought before the court for violation. The Chicago court requested it mandatory that Charles answer certain questions; Counselman refused on the grounds of self-incrimination. The Supreme Court, with Justice Blatchford giving the opinion, declared the 1887 law as related to the Fifth Amendment is not of the Bill of Rights. Source 2 (www. blackwellreference. com/public/tocnode The California State law granted power to prosecute any criminal defendants who exercise his or ‘her right to silence’, by interpreting the silence as an inference of guilt.In 1965 in the Griffin vs. California, Dean Griffin was accused of murder. In the court Griffin refused to speak. His silence was ruled as an acknowledgement of guilt and Griffin was sentenced on those grounds. The Supreme Court, with Justice Douglas giving the ruling, declared that inferring that a person’s right to remain silent is to be deemed guilty is changing the Fifth to suit the court. Source3 (ht tp;/ www. lectlaw. com/files) California State instituted the law of â€Å"Immunity† which compels an individual to testify against himself, with the guarantee that it will not be used to prosecute him.In 1972, Kastigar vs. United States, Charled Kastigar refused to reply even though he was given the guarantee. The California law was qualifying the Fifth Amendment’s right to be silent. The Supreme Court Judge Powell delivered the opinion, which granted â€Å"Use Immunity† which was compatible with the Fifth Amendment. Use Immunity would not allow anything that was given in testimony to be used as evidence for prosecution, nor in any other succeeding case against the defendant. Question #6 Are there currently any constituencies that want this amendment changed, abbreviated, expanded or repealed?Who would support such changes and why? Who would oppose such changes and why? In 2007 George W. Bush issued an executive order that effectively destroyed the Fifth Amendm ent. This executive order that he signed claimed that he has the power to seize the property of any person who undermines efforts to promote economic reconstruction and political reform in Iraq. Bush declared that he can take people’s property without due process if the government determines in some way that a person is undermining efforts to promote economic reconstruction and political reform in Iraq.

ORAL PRESENTATION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ORAL PRESENTATION - Essay Example According to Helen Gardner an art historian, the depth and scope of his likings were without practice and "his personality and mind seemed superhuman, the man himself remote and mysterious." In addition, it is claimed that, despite the various assumptions about Da Vinci, his world vision was logical rather than enigmatic and that the experiential methods he engaged in were rare during his time. Da Vinci was born out of marriage to a lawyer, and a laborer woman, Caterina, in Vinci within the Florence region, Leonardo da Vinci got his education in a studio of the well-known Florentine painter Verrocchio. Most of his early working life was done in Milan with the guidance of Ludovico IL Moro (Leonardoda-Vinci 4). He later on went to work in Bologna, Venice and Rome, and spent his remaining years in France. Da Vinci was well-known mainly as a painter. Amongst his works, included the Mona Lisa painting of which is the most well-known and most imitated painting, as well as The Last Supper of which is the most religiously reproduced painting ever, with their prominence coming close to only Michelangelos Adam Creation. Da Vinci’s painting of the Man of Vitruvian is also considered as a cultural icon that has been reproduced on several items such as textbooks, the euro coin, and T-shirts. There are about fifteen of Da Vinci’s paintings that have survived because of his continuous, and regularly catastrophic, experimentations with new methods, and his prolonged postponement. However, several of these works as well as his notebooks, which contained scientific diagrams, drawings, and his views on the method of painting, influenced artists of later generations matched by only that of his existing, Michelangelo (Leonardoda-Vinci 4). Da Vinci is admired for his technological inventiveness. He conceptualized a tank, flying machines, concentrated solar power, the double hull, and the calculator; he also outlined the theory of rudimentary plate

Introduction to Technical Communicaton Research Paper

Introduction to Technical Communicaton - Research Paper Example The big question is whether we really need to make the drug illegal. The major reason for usage of this drug is that it causes a change on how one thinks and perceives the environment. That is, the drug has in it delta-9 tetra hydro-cannabinol (THC) an ingredient that results in relaxation, and a mild euphoria. Statistics reveal an increase in the usage of the drug especially by the teenage. A study involving Mexican high school students revealed that 3.5% of surveyed students confessed to be involved in some drug trafficking. In addition, a report by National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) revealed an increase on usage by the eighth graders form 14.5% to 16 %. In addition, 12 graders have declined the use of cigarettes, taken up use of marijuana. In the same survey, it emerged that at least 21.4% of the high school students have taken up marijuana in the last 30 days (NIDA web). The document entitled â€Å"Making Marijuana Illegal† makes excessive use of passive voices, spelling mistakes, punctuation marks, which makes it dull and difficult to follow. The wrong usage of verbs distorts meaning in certain sentences, which makes them unintelligible. The document also features various aspects of wordiness and long sentences. Long sentences have the effect of reducing the aesthetics of the writing. Interplay of long and short sentences usually improves the quality of the writing. Punctuation also features as a major technical factor to the document. Missing comas and wrong use of other elements of punctuation also distort the quality of the work. Repetition of certain words affects the quality of the work. The document also features various wrongly structured sentences. Generally, poorly structured sentences fail to connect appropriately with the intended meaning of the article. The various technical faults of the article weaken the thesis of the argument and deny it the necessary aspect of

Questios about graphs Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Questios about graphs - Lab Report Example Such is the best solution rather than closing down the company. The number of firms remains steady in neither short-run, whereby no firm can enter nor exit. When the market price exceeds the average variable cost, the revenue generated by the firms will then cover the variable cost and some revenue left over to offset the fixed costs. The quantity supplied by each company will decrease and remain steady to where it can sustain to operate in the conditions. Thus, the quantity supplied in the market may not meet the required demand by the customers since the quantity will neither decrease nor increase till the firms are out of operating at loss (Caimcross 66). Q3. b) Monopoly is a market where production is under the control of a single supply. The marginal revenue is less than the average revenue because when the monopolists wants to sell more, they must reduce the price on each unit; this prevents the competition from happening. Q4. b) Economic profits are driven to zero when the demand curve, as well as the average total cost curves, are tangent to each other. In this case, the prices are equal to average total cost and thus the firms will earn zero economic profits. The quantity of outputs in the monopolistic competition is much smaller than the quantity that minimizes average total cost. But in perfect competition, price is equal to the minimum average total cost thus the companies produce at their efficient scale. The price in monopolistic competition is greater than marginal cost since the firm has the market power unlike in perfect competition where it is equal to marginal cost. Q5. b) Oligopoly is where a few firms exist in the market. The oligopolies face the downward sloping demand curve. In this case, the rival firms cannot follow a price increase by one firm hence demand will be relatively elastic and rises in the price that will lead to a fall in total revenue of the firm. Also, the rivals

Defining oral history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Defining oral history - Essay Example and development it is important to stay up to date with the current affairs from around the world not only to have a strong footing but to remain in the growing competition. The authenticity of this statement doesn’t need any more strengthening than the fact that the life of today’s man is centered on the pros and cons of the day. That too, if only he is cognizant enough to begin with. Every single individual has the right to rise to their destiny in their own inimitable style, to embrace the uncertainty of life appreciating the miracle of being alive by giving importance to small things because however small they may be, they can be a hurdle in his quest to become the person he wants to be. How to know what thorns to avoid? Which tumors to kill? Which memories to devour? This is where conceptive approach comes into play. The world today has all of us webbed together by the strings of communication. A global village, it is being called. In order to survive here SAYS Rebecca (2007), being with-it is crucial. Cellular devices, televisions, World Wide Web every single device is targeting at maximum acquisition of knowledge and information. Ethics, virtues and morality make life live-able but to thrive, a proper hold of tactics gives an upper hand. Sitting in a third-world country but knowing the prevailing circumstances in developed countries and infected countries like Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan gives a certain amount of enthusiastic self-confidence. Not only that but the ability to adapt to a foreign land without feeling vulnerable. Political, diplomatic and monetary consciousness solidifies our roots. Our customs, culture and every day technological improvements have transformed us into something that we believe is us based on the set standards of the society. We fail to perceive ourselves for what we really are and instead bank on the fact that if the society accepts us we have accomplished the mission. But we cannot be blamed; it is the need of the day to

The Business Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8250 words

The Business Plan - Essay Example Dark Horse Imports Inc. is dedicated to providing the Australian public with the best tasting, premium beer the world has to offer and also aims to control and distribute all SHAG related products for Australia. Dark Horse Inc. is a local management company in Australia which depends directly on The Spirit, Hop and Grape Company (Asia) Ltd. Dark Horse will import Shag lager from Malaysia and will take responsibilities of all the logistic process, from Malaysia to the final consumer, and also all the marketing and promotion activities. The management team for Shag is highly motivated and well qualified for the job. It will consist of Joseph P. Keenan II (CEO), Jacint Fit (CFO) and Benjamin Jeffery (Marketing and Sales). The first product that we will be launching will be SHAG, a premium lager "microbrew" type beer due to the lack of any real competition in this marketplace. The second product will be Blue SHAG Vodka plus, a delightful Vodka drink based with taurine, guarana and caffeine. The third product is a "fab" drink. Following the trend of "fab" drinks, SHAG will launch its own exciting range of fruit-flavoured fermented alcohol drinks. SHAG Beer: Brewed traditionally in Holland, with long lagering and fermentation process, Shag Lager has an alcoholic content of 5% ABV. Using natural spring water, superior malt, hops and yeast from Holland respectively. The end result is a premium lager superior to other major brands. Shag is supplied in 24-pack cases consisting of 300ML bottles in cluster (six-pack) packaging. Major Benefits - Superior Lager - Superior taste compared to other major brands in the market Potentially Strong Market Presence - for the growing and large Australian Beer Market Unique and Attractive Packaging Use of Superior Products from Holland Supplied in Convenient Packaging Blue SHAG Vodka plus: Vodka-based drink with taurine, guarana and caffeine. Described as being a better tasting product than most other Blue drinks, Blue Shag has an alcoholic content of 5.5% ABV. Its unique, 250ml bottle and their marketing plan through merchandising will ensure people keep coming back for more. Major Benefits- Unique Taste Aim for Customers 'wanting more' of Shag - 250 ml bottle Unique Marketing Plan Saleable as the Best Blue Drink in the market Appropriate Alcohol Content SHAG "fab": Following the trend if "fab" also called flavored alcoholic beverages, SHAG will launch its own exciting range of fruit-flavored, fermented alcohol drinks. Fab's has been widely credited with a maintained sales in an wider alcoholic drinks markets as the more traditional spirits markets decline . The combination of naturally fermented alcohol and delicious fruit juices will

International business news Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

International business news - Article Example ees of business organizations of Quebec, was quoted to state that: â€Å"businesses and workers in key Quebec industries—including fish and seafood, maple products, pork, aluminum and wood products—are counting on this agreement to expand their presence in the lucrative EU market. Furthermore, Quebec’s world-leading expertise in sectors such as engineering and infrastructure will benefit greatly from preferred access to the EU’s $2.3 trillion procurement market† (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada , 2012, par. 2). The other benefits that were noted include increasing the Gross Domestic Product (GDP); increasing job opportunities and employment; a boost in bilateral trade and overall improvement of the Canadian economy. The robust growth in Canadian economy was apparently stirred by free trade agreements with nine countries for the last six years. The list of countries that were reported to have had free trade agreements with Canada are as follows: â€Å"Colombia; Jordan; Panama; Peru; the European Free Trade Association states of Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland; and, most recently, Honduras† (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada , 2012, par. 7). Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada . (2012, March 16). Minister Fast Highlights Benefits of a Canada- European Union Trade Agreement for Quebec Workers and Businesses. Retrieved March 21, 2012, from

Problems of working womens Essay Example for Free

Problems of working womens Essay In his book on superstition, Vyse (1997) observed that it is difficult to define superstition and its dictionary definition is not sufficient. He also noticed that in defining superstition the critical problem is the avoidance of value judgments. Unfortunately, he did not provide a comprehensive definition of his own. The following definition of superstition which is based upon the work of Vyse (1997) and Marmor (1956) is proposed: superstition is a belief, or a set of beliefs, that specific actions can directly influence the occurrence of desirable outcomes or the avoidance of undesirable outcomes when, in fact, the action are not causally related to the outcomes. More than it, a superstition is a practice or a belief that is made to influence an outcome, is based upon a mysterious or an unknown force and is contradictory to scientific knowledge available within a culture. Thus, in ancient Egypt the work was based upon the â€Å"science† of the time because studying astrological signs made sense. However, American’s decision to make a purchase in a twenty first century after reading her or his horoscope is a superstitious behavior. The question arise that why superstitious behavior still exhibit in people? The literature actually provides three alternative definitions. First, from operant conditioning perspective, superstitious behaviors and beliefs can result from chance associations of behaviors with punishers and reinforcers. (Skinner, 1948; Wagner and Morris, 1987). According to cognitive learning perspective, by adopting superstitious behaviors and beliefs it can help an individual to understand his environment by providing an explanation and reasoning for inexplicable and unfamiliar phenomena (Keinan,2002). Finally, superstitious beliefs provide illusion of control to individual that helps them to reduce anxiety. Consistent with these themes, Jahoda (1969) proposed that superstitious functions accompany uncertainty as a mean by which people reduce the anxiety and stress. Similarly, Vyse (1997) proposed that when risk and uncertainty are high or in instances in which circumstances cannot be controlled, people may employ superstitious actions as a mean of attempting to control and influence these outcomes. In American, culture has been a frequent assumption that superstitious thought and behavior characterize those who are uneducated, primitive (Frazer,1941 ; Jueneman,2001; Vyse, 1997), or suffering from a mental disorder (Fishbein, 1930). These types of superstitious beliefs has been investigated in the psychological literature, the focus has tended to be on examing its relationship with mental disorders (Eckblad and Chapman,1983;Epestein, 1991; Epstein and Meier, 1989). A 2003 Harris Poll revealed that 31% of those believed in astrology (Taylor,2003). Similarly, in the 2004 Science and Engineering Indicators report, the National Science Institute Foundation reported that 30% of Americans read their horoscope occasionally and 15% read their horoscope very often (National Science Foundation, 2004). High involvement decisions are also influenced by these superstitions beliefs. For example, the number of weddings scheduled on 7\7\07 , in order to capitalize on lucky number 7 increased dramatically in United States (Moran,2007). Including Europe and Asia belief in astrology is also prevalent in other areas of the world. For example, Kramer and Block (2007) reported that Taiwanese consumers were willing to spend nearly 15% more money for their product when the price point met to the lucky number 8. The author suggest that when people look for signs of bad or good luck or take action to influence chance outcomes, they are using superstition as a heuristic device that acts as a short cut in the decision making process. SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS. Superstitions are those irrational belief or supernatural causality: that one event link to another event without any physical process. So, superstitious belief refers to an activity or ritual which can have a negative or positive impact on the events in person’s life. There is no evidence which support a superstitious belief. Attempts to define and explain superstitious beliefs have appeared throughout Western history, especially in the areas of religion, psychology and anthropology. Ancient Greeks and Romans give it a Latin word â€Å"SUPERSTITIO† to give an account of activities they felt to be meaningless. HELEN L. PARISH and WILLIAM G. NAPHY, protestant accused Catholics in the era of Reformation because of superstitious belief. For example, Protestant accused publicly as superstition the respect of saints, lighting candles to find favor with God and saying a set number of prayers for penance. During the 18th century at the Age of Enlightenment opposition to superstition was the intellectual central corner. At that time philosophies included much of Christian Doctrine considered these beliefs like miracles, magic, revelation, supernatural as â€Å"superstition† as a ridiculed belief. In 15th century the word superstition used in English, modeled after an earlier French superstition. Actually French word, together with its Roman cognates continues Latin superstitio. The formation of the Latin word is clear, as it is derived from the verb super-state, â€Å"stand upon; survive, to stand over†, here its actual sense is less than clear. It can be interpreted as â€Å"standing over a thing in awe†, but other possibilities would be, for example, irrational religious habits, over-ceremoniousness in the performing of religious rites, over-scrupulousness, or else the survival of old. The term supertitio, was applied to those religious cults which were officially outlawed in the Roman Empire in the 1st century. A carpenter happened another deal to land while carrying a nail in the pocket which he had forgotten there. He notices that nail. After that he came back to home, watched his wife happy about something, took off the jacket, and noticed the nail again. He associated his lucky day with this item. Next day he kept that nail with him in every important event. Religion also plays a significance role in some kind of superstition belief. Before Christianity popular people believed in multiple gods, and one of the powerful of them was representing the sun as a source of light, and, thus, is also seen as a source of life. So due to this people light all the corners of their house with an Easter candle the whole year will be considered as the lucky one. So some superstition rituals as such came from the old religious activities. Due to emergence of new religion most of such beliefs had forgotten, some of them had found their place in the new world view. For example, in the times when the first mirror became available to the people breaking a mirror was considered a very disappointing thing because mirrors were so expensive that time. Naturally, people saw nothing good in breaking one. Same situation related to spilling salt. In old era salt was considered as one of the most expensive and precious thing in the household. So, such superstitions were just a way for people to teach their children to admire what they have. Generally superstitions have personal, religious, or cultural background. They do have a logical explanations is the common feature of all. When the superstition originated there key to explanation is always in world-view of the times and in beliefs. Simply; superstitions resulting from ignorance or fear of unknown and it is an irrational belief or practices. Belief in the power of magic and witchcraft are the validity of superstitions such as spirit and demons. Superstition is the notion, ritual or act that derived from such belief. Like in the Middle Age, a common superstition was that when the person was sneezing during the unguarded moment a devil could enter in a person; if immediately any one present appeared to the name of God. This tradition still remains today of saying when someone sneezes â€Å"God bless you†. Superstitions can be cultured that came from people and pass to one another. Great source of superstitions are the myths, scholars, cultures, elders, imaginative stories, leaders and governments. There are some common superstitions which have a negative impact on people are as below. Types of superstition belief. Spilling salt over your shoulder. [Is supposed to damage the evil]. If a cat heard crying, it’s a bad omen. The opening the scissors and closing it without a reason causes family problems at home. Don’t drink milk after eating fish, said to cause severe skin problem. You can’t cut nails at night. Kids shouldn’t let any one walk over them otherwise they will stop growing. Never call one back when the person is leaving the house. If you dream about buffaloes and horses its bad luck. Fluttering of eyes. Even that indicates the happening of good and bad in their lives. If you broke the glass it’s a sign of happiness. If there is itching on the right palm you can get some money or favors. When the owl sings it’s a sign of bad luck. When a dog howls, someone is going to die in the neighborhood. If we are walking and see a black cat cross in front of you, it’s bad luck Knocking on wood. Walking under a ladder. Wearing different kind of stones in specific fingers. A four leaf cloves and so on†¦. People had a lot of beliefs that directly contradict to the philosophy of their own religion. Some people claims that they have no superstitions but they likely to do something which they cannot explain. Feeling of lack of control in people upon their life, many people tried to impose structure and order on the world, to hide their mistakes by blaming luck. Passing down through generation to generation of these superstitions it can change their validity regarding evolutionary process. Some of the older form of superstitions have long been a part of lore and are now the examples of misguided beliefs. These superstitious beliefs are not valid but people still believe in it. Part of the reason seems to be just because other people tell them these things are true. Some these kinds of irrational beliefs have been around for many generations. Sometimes everybody with the same cultural background practically believes them. If the claims are not true and people recognize that these superstitions are false but they can’t stop passing them on. In spite of difficulties, many people still believe in superstitions. Culture of some country such as culture of Western country also believes in superstition that deemed irrational. GLOBALLY. When our ideas or faiths are not based upon scientific explanations, we call them superstitions. In past, when people saw the red horizon of the west during the sun-set, they called it an indication of anger of Gods and Goddesses. They expected high flood or cyclone or any epidemic to occur. It was nothing but a superstition. People are afraid of the number 13. They think that it is an inauspicious number so they do not begin any good work on this date. Some people do not like to stay in the room which bears the number thirteen, hi past, Malaria and cholera -were believed to be the results of Gods displeasure and curse. There-were many superstitions in past. They were all born ignorance. The causes of some events were unknown due to ignorance. So, people believed that those events were caused by invisible being. People worshiped stones and trees in order to be cured of diseases. They thought that some evil spirits were responsible for all kinds of troubles in the world. They worshipped Gods and Goddesses to be free from earth quake,-cyclone and flood. Sometimes they killed human beings and other animals and satisfied Gods. In India, cat is an ominous animal. If a cyclist or motorist notices a cat on the way, he stops and retreats a little. There is no reason why only a cat is feared on the way. In Europe they had many superstitions. People did not walk under a ladder which was kept against a wall. They did not start any important work if they heard the sound of thunder. A crow or vulture flying over head was considered very dangerous. It indicated death. In past, -Kings and emperors consulted the soothsayers, in their court before doing any Work. If the soothsayers gave negative signal no work was done. Julius Ceasar of Rome was a superstitious emperor. Cicero, the greatest Roman orator, lost his life by trusting the superstition regarding crows. Nature was a mystery for man in past. The functions of nature, laws of the universe etc. were not discovered in those days. So man thought himself as a plaything of an uncontrollable force. If that force is beneficent, man gets peace and lives happily. That force is sinister then his life becomes miserable. Man believed in fate. Very often superstitions are connected with religion. Indians are very God fearing. In this country, many superstitions ail linked with religion. People observe Thursday and do not take non-vegetarian food on this dry. The Hindus believe that they can be rich by observing Thursday which is specific day of Goddess Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth. Pigs are hated in certain religion. The moon was considered a Goddess. Lunar eclipse was believed a § a curse of God. So it is globally proved that superstitions are still existed in our own society as well as all over the world http://www.preservearticles.com/201104265986/sample-essay-superstitions.html Objectives of the Study This study is being carried out to achieve certain objectives which are: 1. To examine historically common superstitions in students of iiui. 2. To analyze as well as highlight the reasons why most of the students still believe on such perceptions. 3. To appraise the extent of the impact of these practices of superstitions on the studies and behavior of students. Research questions of the study. What are the historical common superstitions in students? What is the reasons behind superstitions among students? What are the impact of these beliefs on the behavior and studies of students? THEORY. Superstitious Pigeons. One of Skinners experiments examined the formation of superstition in one of his favorite experimental animals, the pigeon. Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the birds behavior. He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery of the food with whatever chance actions they had been performing as it was delivered, and that they subsequently continued to perform these same actions. One bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three turns between reinforcements. Another repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage. A third developed a tossing response, as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Two birds developed a pendulum motion of the head and body, in which the head was extended forward and swung from right to left with a sharp movement followed by a somewhat slower return. Skinner suggested that the pigeons behaved as if they were influencing the automatic mechanism with their rituals and that this experiment shed light on human behavior: The experiment might be said to demonstrate a sort of superstition. The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behavior and the presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking. There are many analogies in human behavior. Rituals for changing ones fortune at cards are good examples. A few accidental connections between a ritual and favorable consequences suffice to set up and maintain the behavior in spite of many unreinforced instances. The bowler who has released a ball down the alley but continues to behave as if she were controlling it by twisting and turning her arm and shoulder is another case in point. These behaviors have, of course, no real effect upon ones luck or upon a ball half way down an alley, just as in the present case the food would appear as often if the pigeon did nothing—or, more strictly speaking, did something else. Modern behavioral psychologists have disputed Skinners superstition explanation for the behaviors he recorded. Subsequent research (e.g. Staddon and Simmelhag, 1971), while finding similar behavior, failed to find support for Skinners adventitious reinforcement explanation for it. By looking at the timing of different behaviors within the interval, Staddon and Simmelhag were able to distinguish two classes of behavior: the terminal response, which occurred in anticipation of food, and interim responses, that occurred earlier in the interfood interval and were rarely contiguous with food. Terminal responses seem to reflect classical (as opposed to operant) conditioning, rather than adventitious reinforcement, guided by a process like that observed in 1968 by Brown and Jenkins in their autoshaping procedures. The causation of interim activities (such as the schedule-induced polydipsia seen in a similar situation with rats) also cannot be traced to adventitious reinforcement and its details are still obscure (Staddon, 1977). This experiment was also repeated on humans, in a less controlled manner, on the popular British TV series Trick or Treat, leading to similar conclusions to Skinner. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY. Every social phenomenon needs some cognitive and concrete requirements to exist and to come into being. Development is a social phenomenon; reaching the goals of development is among the primary goals of every society and reaching development needs concrete and cognitive requirements. If these requirements are not met and fulfilled, the manifestation development will be impossible. During the 1960s, some thinkers focused much on culture and believed that if we do not change peoples attitudes and beliefs, we can not reach development. We should modernize the culture. The 244. Univers. J. Edu. Gen. Stud. cognitive and the cultural elements of the society are the infrastructure for any kind of economic growth and development. In order for our country to survive, it must reach the level of other developed and industrial society in the shortest time possible from technical and economical point of view. Such a movement requires highly motivated people with a high level of knowledge and high cultural growth. Those people who just wait for the invisible and heavenly hands, magicians and sorcerers for help and consider the diligent attempts useless could not be good soldiers for the development of a nation. Regarding the cognitive and cultural factors for the development of the society, it can be said that when a society is entangled in superstitions, it does not have necessary cognitive requirements for the true development (Sepehr, 2005). From a functional point of view, it can be said that superstitious beliefs create negative functions which, in turn, limit the accomplishment of the development. These negative factions are as follows: A-superstitious ideas and beliefs impose are involved in superstitions, the rulers of the society can rule them based on these superstitions and false imagination and pursue their own benefits and the people will be just a useless mass for them. B- Development of superstitious ideas draws and shows a very bad picture of our society to the world. C- Social problems; by following the track of many social problems, we can see the role of superstitious beliefs in their occurrence. So it can be said that if a human being places his life on nil and nihilism, instead of reality and truth, his self-confidence will decrease , and he will rely in superstitious beliefs, and as a result he will get far and away from research and finally this will be a barrier for development and growth of the society as a whole. This is one of the negative effects of the inclination to superstition on individuals and society. Methodology: A methodology is usually a guideline system for solving a problem, with specific components such as phases, tasks, methods, techniques and tools (Irny, S.I. and Rose, A.A. 2005). Methodology can properly refer to the theoretical analysis of the methods appropriate to a field of study or to the body of methods and principles particular to a branch of knowledge (The American Heritage, 2009). It is system of principles or methods of procedure in any discipline, such as education, research, diagnosis, or treatment (Elsevier, 2009). Methodology is the analysis of the fundamentals of methods or rules used by a discipline. Methodology has the principles, practices and procedures in a field of study. It is the theoretical analysis of the methods (Gergedan,2008). Research Design: Research design is the description of the overall structure of the intended research identifying the various element or components of research, the type of each element, and how these elements relate to each other. The purpose of research design is to select and define the overall structure and methods of intended research that will enable us to answer the initial research question effectively and efficiently. There are two types of research designs which are used in sociological research, one is qualitative and other is quantitative. Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is research that uses numerical analysis. In essence, this approach reduces the data into numbers. Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between emperical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Quantitative data is any data that is in numerical form such as statistics, percentages ( Lisa M, 2008). Universe: The element of population or area of study under research problem from which a sample is choosen is universe, or any set of indivisuals having some common characteristics, under study made universe. The study was conducted INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY of Islamabad to see the impact of superstitions among students related studies. First hand information have been collected from the students of university. Population: Any set of people or events from which the sample is selected and to which the study results will generalize is known as population. Population of study is the students on INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY Islamabad. The study was conducted in Islamabad Sample method: Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest. By studying the sample results are generalized back to the population from which they were chosen. The sample is consists of students of iiui. Sample size: Using convinient sampling data was collected from 100 students of INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD. Respondents were reached by researcher herself and it was requested to respondents to give correct and honest information. And respondents were assured that information would remain confidential and utilized only for research purpose. Tool for data collection: Data was collected through questionnaire. Questionnaire: In this research questionnaire method was used for gathering data. A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. The researcher was approached indivisually to all the respondents, and respondents were also briefed about the nature and purpose of questionnaire. Pretesting: The questionnaire was pretested for identifying questionnaire problems. These can occur for both respondents and interviewers regarding question content, skip patterns, or formatting. Questionnaire was pretested to assess whether the questionnaire was relevant to and easily understood by the respondents, in terms of the concepts and the way they phrased in the questions. Data analysis: Coding: Coding refers to an analytical process in which data, in both quantitative form (such as questionnaires results) or qualitative (such as interview transcript) categorised to facilitate analysis. Coding means the transformation of data into a form understandable by computer software. The classification of information is an important step in preparation of data for computer processing with statistical software. Tabulation: The systematic and orderly arrangement of facts and figures in columns and rows is called tabulation. The process of placing classified data into tabular form is known as tabulation. A table is a symmetric arrangement of statistical data in rows and columns. Rows are horizontal arrangements whereas columns are vertical arrangements. It may be simple, double or complex depending upon the type of classification. Statistical analysis: Statistical analysis refers to a collection of methods used to process large amounts of data and report overall trends. Statistical analysis is particularly useful when dealing with larger data. Statistical analysis provides ways to objectively report on how unusual an event is based on historical data. In other word it is statistical analysis. View as multi-pages

The Respective Theories Of Motivation Psychology Essay

The Respective Theories Of Motivation Psychology Essay The term motivation derived from the Latin word movere, meaning to move. Motivation represents those psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal oriented (Mitchell, 1982). Motivation as defined by Robbins (1993) is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need. A need in this context is an internal state that makes certain outcomes appears attractive. An unsatisfied need creates tension that stimulates drives within the individual. These drives then generate a search behavior to find particular goals that, if attained, will satisfy the need and lead to the reduction of tension (Robbins, 1993). Luthans (1998) sees it as the process that arouses, energizes, directs, and sustains behavior and performance, while Pinder (1998) defines work motivation as the set of internal and external forces that initiate work-related behavior, and determine its form, direction, intensity and duration. According to Nelson and Quick (2003), motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. The most practical definition proposed by social scientist that, motivation is a psychological processes thatorigin the stimulation, direction, and persistence of behaviour (Luthans, 2005). 2.3 Employees Motivation Theories There are many theories of motivation. The researcher identified the most relevant theories and explained the respective theories of motivation and how motivation gives an valuable impact on job satisfaction. 2.3.1 Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory Maslows Hierarchy of needs is one of the motivation theories that used all over the world. Maslow theory is a basic to start examining the different motivation theories. The first idea of Maslow is people always tend to want something and what they want depends on what they already have. According to Mullins (2007) states that Maslow proposed that there are five different levels of needs people have to seek for satisfaction of their basic needs. The first level of this theory is Physiological Needs. These needs include the most basic of all human needs like water, shelter, food, warmth, rest and clothing. When people dont feel hunger, thirst or cold, their needs go to a next level. The second lowest level is Safety Needs. Need to feel secure and protected in his/her family as well as in a society of day-to-day life is a part in this level. Next, the third level is Belonging and Love Need. After feeling secure, people need for love, affection, sense of belongingness in ones relationship with other persons. The fourth level is Esteem Needs. It is the need to be unique with self-respect and to enjoy esteem from other individuals. People want to evaluate themselves highly and based on their achievement receive appreciation from other people. Lack of these needs may cause inferiority, helplessness and weakness. Highest level of Maslows hierarchy of needs is Self-Actualization. The development of this need is based on the satisfac tion at the other four lower levels. It refers to the need of self-fulfillment and to the tendency to become actualized in what a person is potential. The core of this theory lies in the fact that when one need is fulfilled, its strength diminishes and the strength of the next level increases (Latham, 2007). Figure 2.3.1 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs maslows-hierarchy-of-needs1 2.3.2 Equity Theory Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards they receive for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive. Based on ones inputs, such as effort, experience, education, and competence, one can compare outcomes such as salary levels, increases, recognition and other factors. When people perceive an imbalance in their outcome-input ratio relative to others, tension is created. This tension provides the basis for motivation, as people strive for what they perceive as equity and fairness (Robbins, 1993). One of the prominent theories with respect to equity theory was developed through the work of J.S. Adams. Adams theory is perhaps the most rigorously developed statement of how individuals evaluate social exchange relationships (Steers, 1983). The major components of exchange relationships in this theory are inputs and outcomes. In a situation where a person exchanges her or his services for pa y, inputs may include previous work experience, education, effort on the job, and training. Outcomes are those factors that result from the exchange. The most important outcome is likely to be pay with outcomes such as supervisory treatment, job assignments, fringe benefits, and status symbols taken into consideration also. Equity theory rests upon three main assumptions (Carrell, 1978). First, the theory holds that people develop beliefs about what constitutes a fair and equitable return for their contributions to their jobs. Second, the theory assumes that people tend to compare what they perceive to be the exchange they have with their employers. The other assumption is that when people believe that their own treatment is not equitable, relative to the exchange they perceive others to be making, they will be motivated to take actions they deem appropriate. This concept of equity is most often interpreted in work organizations as a positive association between an employees effort or performance on the job and the pay she or he receives. Adams (1965) suggested that individual expectations about equity or fair correlation between inputs and outputs are learned during the process of socialization and through the comparison with inputs and outcomes of others. Pinder (1984) stated that feelings of inequita ble treatment tend to occur when people believe they are not receiving fair returns for their efforts and other contributions. The challenge therefore for organizations is to develop reward systems that are perceived to be fair and equitable and distributing the reward in accordance with employee beliefs about their own value to the organization. The consequences of employees perceiving they are not being treated fairly create a variety of options for the employees (Champagne, 1989). These options include the employees reducing their input through directly restricting their work output, attempting to increase their output by seeking salary increases or seeking a more enjoyable assignment. Other possibilities are to decrease the outcomes of a comparison other until the ratio of that persons outcomes to inputs is relatively equal or increasing the others inputs. In addition to the above mentioned, the employee could simply withdraw from the situation entirely, that is, quit the job and seek employment elsewhere. 2.3.3 Expectancy theory The concept of expectancy was originally formulated by Vroom and it stands for the probability that action or effort will lead to an outcome. The concept of expectancy was defined in more detail by Vroom as follows: Where an individual chooses between alternatives which involve uncertain outcomes, it seems clear that his behavior is affected not only by his preferences among these outcomes but also by the degree to which he believes these outcomes to be possible. Expectancy is defined as momentary belief concerning the likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome. Expectancies may be described in terms of their strength. Maximal strength is indicated by subjective certainty that the act will be followed byoutcome, while minimal strength is indicated by the subjective certainty that the actwill not be followed by the outcome (Vroom, 1964). Fundamental to all the popular theories of motivation is the notion that employees are motivated to perform better when offered something they want, something they believe will be satisfying. However, offering the employees something they believe will be satisfying is necessary, but not enough. They must believe that it is possible to achieve what they want. Employees are not motivated to perform better when managers focus on the offering and ignore the believing. Employees confidence that they will get what they want involves three separate and distinct beliefs. The first belief is that they can perform well enough to get what is offered. The second is thatthey will get it if they perform well. The third belief is that what is offered will be satisfying. Each of these three beliefs deals with what employees think will happen if they put effort to perform. The first belief deals with the relationship between effort and performance, the second with the relationship between performance and outcomes, and the third with the relationship between outcomes and satisfaction. All these beliefs are interrelated because an employee effort leads to some level of performance, the performance leads to outcomes, and the outcomes lead to some amount of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. In conclusion, the expectancy theory of motivation requires the fulfillment of the following conditions: employees are motivated to perform only when they believe that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to outcomes, and the outcomes will lead to satisfaction (Green, 1992). Effort-to-performance expectancy is the starting point in the implementation of the expectancy theory. It is a persons perception of the probability that effort will lead to successful performance. If we believe our effort will lead to higher performance, this expectancy is very strong, then we are certain that the outcome will occur. If we believe our performance will be the same no matter how much effort we make, our expectancy is very low, meaning that there is no probability that the outcome will occur. A person who thinks there is a moderate relationship between effort and subsequent performance has an adequate expectancy, and thus put maximum effort in the performance. The next stage in the expectancy theory is performance-to-outcome expectancy, which is a persons perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain other outcomes. If a person thinks a high performer is certain to get a pay raise, this expectancy is high. On the other hand, a person who believes raises are entirely independent of the performance has a low expectancy. Thus, if a person thinks performance has some bearing on the prospects for a pay raise, his or herexpectancy is adequate. In a work setting, several performance-to-outcome expectancies are relevant because several outcomes might logically result from performance. Each outcome, then, has its own expectancy. The final stage in the expectancy linkage is named outcomes and valences. An outcome is anything that might potentially result from performance. High level performance conceivably might produce such outcomes as a pay raise, a promotion, recognition from the boss, fatigue, stress, or less time to rest, among others. The valence of an outcome is the relative attractiveness or unattractiveness of that outcome to the person. Pay raises, promotion, and recognition might all have positive valences, whereas fatigue, stress, and less time to rest might all have negative valences. The stress of outcome valences varies from person to person. Work-related stress may be a significant negative factor for one person but only a slight annoyance for someone desperately in need of money, a slight positive valence for someone interested mostly in getting promotion or, for someone in an unfavorable tax position, even a negative valence. The basic expectancy framework suggests that three conditions must be met before motivated behavior occurs (Griffin, 2007). Behavioral scientists generally agree that the expectancy theory of motivation represents the most comprehensive, valid and useful approach to understanding motivation. However, it does not end with only understanding, it is also important to be able to motivate people to perform. In this regard, the Expectancy theory generally has been considered quite difficult to apply. This is no longer true, as there are many application models that have been developed over the years and which are quite simple and straightforward (Green, 1992). 2.3.4 Herzberg Motivation/Hygiene theory Herzbergs motivation/hygiene theory is also known as the two-factor theory. Herzberg started the study job satisfaction in the 1950s in Pittsburg. The basis of Herzbergs work is in the Maslows Hierarchy of Needs. He started with the idea that what causes the job satisfaction are the opposite of those things that cause job dissatisfaction. However, after studying thousands of books he couldnt draw any guidelines. He conducted a survey where he asked participants to identify those things that made them feel positive with their job and those that made them feel negative. As a result Herzberg found out that what makes people happy is what they do or the way theyre utilized and what makes people unhappy is the way theyre treated. Things that make people satisfied at work are different from those that cause dissatisfaction so those two feelings cant be opposite. Based on these findings, Herzberg created his theory of motivators and hygiene factors. Both factors can motivate workers but they work for different reasons. Hygiene factors tend to cause only short-term satisfaction to the workers while motivators most probably cause longer-term job satisfaction. Motivatorsor satisfiers are those factors that cause feelings of satisfaction at work. These factors motivate by changing the nature of the work. They challenge a person to develop their talents and fulfill their potential. For example adding responsibility to work and providing learning opportunities to a person to work at a higher level can lead to a positive performance growth in every task a person is expected to do if the possible poor results are related to boredom of the task they are supposed to accomplish. Motivators are those that come from intrinsic feelings. In addition to responsibility and learning opportunities also recognition, achievement, advancement and growth are motivation factors.These factors dont dissatisfy if they are not present but by giving value to these, satisfaction level of the employees is most probably going to grow (Bogardus, 2007). When hygiene factors are maintained, dissatisfaction can be avoided. When opposite, dissatisfaction is most probably to occur and motivation cant take place. 2.4 Employees Job Satisfaction Many definitions of the concept of job satisfaction have been formulated over time. According to Locke (1969), job satisfaction is a state of emotional gladness, results from the achievement of the goals that one get through performing his part of contribution inside an organization. Employee job satisfaction is influenced by the internal organization environment, which includes organizational climate, leadership types and personnel relationships (Taber and Seashore, 1975). Locke and Lathan (1990) give a comprehensive definition of job satisfaction as pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. Job satisfaction is a result of employees perception of how well their job provides those things that are viewed as important. Work satisfaction results from the perception that ones job fulfills, or allows the fulfillment of ones important job values. Phrased differently, work is gratifying if it complements ones personal desires and needs. Definition by McCormick and Ilgen (1980) looks similar. They also regarded job satisfaction as a persons attitude towards his or her job, and added that an attitude is an emotional response to the job, which may vary along a continuum from positive to negative. In addition, Megginson, Mosley and Pietri (1982) stated that people experience job satisfaction when they feel good about their jobs, and that this feeling often relates to their doing their jobs well, or their becoming more proficient in their professions, or their being recognized for good performance. According to Wiener (1982) states that job satisfaction is an attitude towards work-related conditions, facets, or aspects of the job. Arnold and Feldman (1986) described job satisfaction as the amount of overall affect that individuals have toward their job. High job satisfaction therefore means that an individual likes his or her work in general, appreciates it and feels positive about in. According to Mitchell and Lasan (1987), it is generally recognized in the organizational behaviour field that job satisfaction is the most important and frequently studied attitude. Job satisfaction is so important in that its absence often leads to lethargy and reduced organizational commitment (Moser, 1997). Lack of job satisfaction is a predictor of quitting a job (Alexander, Litchtenstein and Hellmann, 1997; Jamal, 1997). Sometimes workers may quit from public to the private sector and vice versa. At the othertimes the movement is from one profession to another that is considered a greener pasture. Job satisfaction has been defined as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ an attitude that individual has about their job, it results from their perception of their job and the degree to which there is good fit between the individual and the organization (Ivancevich et al., 1997). Job satisfaction is an important motivator to employees performance. While Luthan (1998) posited that there are three important dimensions to job satisfaction: Job satisfaction is an emotional response to a job situation. It can only be inferred. Job satisfaction is often determined by how well outcome meet or exceed expectations. For instance, if organization participants feel that they are working much harder than others in the department but are receiving fewer rewards they will probably have a negative attitudes towards the work, the boss and or coworkers. On the other hand, if they feel they are being treated very well and are being paid equitably, they are likely to have positive attitudes towards the job. Job satisfaction represents several related attitudes which are most important characteristics of a job about which people have effective response. These to Luthans are: the work itself, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision and coworkers. Schneider and Snyder (1975) regard job satisfaction as a personal evaluation of conditions present in the job, or outcomes that arise as a result of having a job. It appears then that job satisfaction encapsulates a persons perception and evaluation of his job, and that this perception is influenced by the persons unique disposition. People will therefore evaluate their jobs against those aspects that are important to them (Sempane et al., 2002). Since job satisfaction involves employees emotions and feelings, it has a major impact on their personal, social and work lives (Sempane et al., 2002) and for this reason may also influence their behaviour as employees, e.g. absenteeism (Locke, 1976; Visser, Breed and Van Breda, 1997). According to Feinstein (2000) states thatjob satisfaction is more of a response to a specific job or various aspects of the job. Job satisfaction is an important element from organizational perspective, as it leads to higher organizational commitment of employees and high commitment leads to overall organizational success and development (Feinstein, 2000) additionally growth, effectiveness and efficiency of the organization and low employees intentions to leave the organization (Mosadeghard, 2008). Obstinately, dissatisfied individuals leave the organization and inflate the motivation of those staying there (Feinstein, 2000) and as a result workers loose performance and efficiency and might sabotage the work and leave the job (Sonmezer andEryaman, 2008). According to Ramayah, Jantan and Tadisina (2001), job satisfaction explains how employees are buoyant to come to work and how they get enforced to perform their jobs. Other researchers narrate job satisfaction as being the outcome of the workers appraisal of extent to which the work environment fulfillment the individuals needs (Dawis and Lofquist 1984). Various researchers have contributed their research findings from organizational set ups, in order to increase employee job satisfaction and have given various suggestions to boost up the satisfaction. Feinstein (2000) says in order to increase individuals satisfaction level employees should be given advancement opportunities. Similarly changes in organizational variables, such as pay scales, employee input in policy development, and work environment could then be made in an effort to increase organizational commitment and overall outcome. Elton Mayo found that interaction within the group is the biggest satisfier. Safety, relation to work and success are followed by intergroup relations (Bektas, 2003). Mosadeghard (2000) gave job satisfaction dimensions like nature of the job, management and supervision, task requirement, co-workers, job security, and recognition and promotion had more effect on employees organizational commitment in organizational set up. According to Oshagbemi (2003), job satisfaction is an important attribute which organizations desire of their employees. The job satisfaction by employees can contribute to the success of an organization because employees can give full commitment and motivation to perform their job. Pensions and profit-sharing plans are positively associated with job satisfaction (Bender and Heywood, 2006). According to Stephen (2005), one would be wrong to consider one single measure of job satisfaction and there may be number of reasons that need to be considered. He further found that actual work was the biggest satisfier and working conditions were the least satisfier; job security was also big determinant of job satisfaction. (Penn et al., 1988) found that opportunity for professional development is the biggest determinant to differentiate satisfied and non-satisfied employees. An employee will be satisfied if he has reached the ideals in his profession; he will develop positive feelings towards his profession (Sirin, 2009). Absence of work life balance, lack advancement opportunities, work environment, lack of encouragement, and lack of recognition may lead to stress, which ultimately causes dissatisfaction, burnout and finally increased turnover rate within organization (Ahmadi andAlireza, 2007). Job satisfaction is inversely related to burnout, intentions to leave the organization (Penn et al., 1988). According to OLeary, Wharton and Quinlan (2009), job satisfaction is also generally conceived as an attitudinal variable that reflects the degree to which people like their jobs, and positively related to employee health and performance. Toper (2008) stated that, If a person believes that the values are realized within the job, this person possesses a positive attitude towards the job and acquire job satisfaction. In the other words, employees will be motivates to perform their job with good attitudes, so that employees will be automatically satisfied with the job. Topper (2008) proposed that Maslows need theory has connection with job satisfaction. An employee will be satisfied with his/her job when he or she achieves the levels of needs, e.g. physiological, security, social, self-esteem and self-actualization. Mosadeghard (2008) gave job satisfaction dimensions like nature of the job, management and supervision, task requirement, co-workers, job security, and recognition and promotion as having more effect on employees organizational commitment in organizational set up. OLeary, Wharthon and Quinlan (2008), job satisfaction is also generally conceived as an attitudinal variable that reflects the degree to which people like their jobs, and positively related to employee health and job performance. With referring to the concept of Herzbergs motivation theories and supported by other researchers, it shows that motivational factors (achievement, advancement, work itself, recognition and growth) are key foundation that influences and has significant impact on employees job satisfaction.Thus, it is proposed that; There is a significant relationship between achievement and job satisfaction. There is a significant relationship between advancement and job satisfaction. There is a significant relationship between work itself and job satisfaction. There is a significant relationship between recognition and job satisfaction. There is a significant relationship between growth and job satisfaction. 2.5 Research Model This study has integrated different views and thought from past research to study the concept of motivation and factors affecting on employee job satisfaction. Thus, this study focuses on Herzbergs motivation theories. The motivational factors in this theory are achievement, advancement, work itself, recognition and growththat give an impact on employee job satisfaction. Based on that, the research model developed for this study can be seen in Figure 2.5.1. Figure 2.5.1: Research Model of the study Achievement Advancement Job Satisfaction Work Itself Recognition Growth Independent Variable Dependent Variable 2.6 Summary This chapter reviewed literatures on the independent variables of the present study, which are motivational factors (achievement, advancement, work itself, recognition and growth). Meanwhile, our dependent variable that is job satisfaction was discussed. Research methodology of the present study will be discussed in the following chapter.